Introduction
⌅Agriculture faces the challenge of increasing production to feed a growing global population (Zain et al., 2023ZAIN, M.; MA, H.; CHAUDHARY, S.; NURUZAMAN, M.; AZEEM, I.; MEHMOOD, F.; AIWANG, D.; SUN, C.: “Nanotechnology in precision agriculture: Advancing towards sustainable crop production”, Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 2006: 108244, 2023, ISSN: 0981-9428, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.108244. ; Saha et al., 2025SAHA, S.; KUCHER, O.D.; UTKINA, A.O.; REBOUH, N.Y.: “Precision agriculture for improving crop yield predictions: a literature review”, Frontiers in Agronomy, 7: 1566201, 2025, ISSN: 2673-3218, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2025.1566201. ), in a context of climate change, water scarcity, and the need to reduce its environmental impact, which includes soil degradation, agrochemical pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions (Domínguez et al., 2024DOMÍNGUEZ, C.; MIRANDA, A.; GUILHERME DE ARAÚJO, A.; MOREJÓN, Y.; PANEQUE, P.: “Management of Agricultural Machinery in Cuba to Enhance Ecosystem Services and Mitigate Climate Change”, Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 55(3): 27-31, 2024, ISSN: 0084-5841., 2025DOMÍNGUEZ, C.; CISNEROS, E.; HERRERA, J.; RUIZ, M.; MIRANDA, A.; PANEQUE, P.; MARTIN, R.A.: “Enfoques para la gestión y uso eficiente del agua en el cultivo de arroz”, Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias, 34: e03, 2025, ISSN: 2071-0054. ; Getahun et al., 2024GETAHUN, S.; KEFALE, H.; GELAYE, Y.: “Application of Precision Agriculture Technologies for Sustainable Crop Production and Environmental Sustainability: A Systematic Review”, The Scientific World Journal, 2024: 2126734, 2024, ISSN: 2356-6140, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1155/2024/2126734. ). The answer to this challenge may lie in a profound digital transformation of the sector, moving towards a precision agriculture (PA) and smart farming model that allows for more with less (Guzmán et al., 2024GUZMÁN, J.G.; MATUZ, M.; ARANA, J.Y.; LÓPEZ, E.; GÓMEZ, V.; GONZÁLEZ, N.: “Advances and prospects of precision agriculture for agricultural sustainability”, XIKUA Boletín Científico de la Escuela Superior de Tlahuelilpan, 12(24): 01-06, 2024, ISSN: 2007-4940, DOI: http://doi.org/10.29057/xikua.v12i24.12790. ; Elhoseny et al., 2026ELHOSENY, M.; JAHID, K.; LATIF, R.; SADDIK, A.; ATASSI, R.: “Recent advances in IoT-driven crop monitoring and precision irrigation: Technologies, models, and future challenges”, Scientific African, 2026, (en prensa), ISSN: 2468-2276, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2026.e03222. ).
Two fundamental pillars of this transformation are efficient water management through smart irrigation and the optimization of agricultural tasks through precision mechanization. Smart irrigation, enabled by wireless sensor networks (WSNs), the Internet of Things (IoT), and Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms, allows irrigation to be scheduled based on the actual needs of the crop and real-time soil and climate conditions, replacing traditional practices based on fixed schedules (Abioye et al., 2020ABIOYE, E.A.; ABIDIN, M.S.Z.; MAHMUD, M.S.A.; BUYAMIN, S.; ISHAK, M.H.I.; ABD RAHMAN, M.K.I.; OTUOZE, A.O.; ONOTU, P.; RAMLI, M.S.A.: “A review on monitoring and advanced control strategies for precision irrigation”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 173: 105441, 2020, ISSN: 0168-1699.; Morchid et al., 2026MORCHID, A.; QJIDAA, H.; ALAMI, R.E.; MOBAYEN, S.; SKRUCH, P.; BOSSOUFI, B.: “Smart irrigation-based internet of things and cloud computing technologies for sustainable Farming”, Scientific Reports, 16: 5293, 2026, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35810-0. ).
Similarly, precision mechanization, which integrates variable rate technology (VRT), autonomous guidance systems, and autonomous agricultural robotics, optimizes the use of inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides, and fuels, while increasing operational efficiency and reducing soil compaction (Schimmelpfennig, 2016SCHIMMELPFENNIG, D.: “Farm profits and adoption of precision agriculture”, Economic Research Report No. 217, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 2016, DOI: http://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.249773. ; Cortez et al., 2024CORTEZ, A.; PRO, L.; MAMANI, N.; LOZADA, P.; PARIONA, J.: “Precision agriculture: transforming traditional agriculture with technology”, Revista de Investigación de Sistemas e Informática, 17(2): 51-63, 2024, ISSN: 1816-3823, DOI: http://doi.org/10.15381/risi.v17i2.29917. ). The convergence of IoT and AI, known as AIoT, is exponentially enhancing these capabilities, creating more autonomous and predictive systems capable of managing the inherent complexity of agroecosystems (Bayih et al., 2022BAYIH, A.; MORALES, J.; ASSABIE, Y.; DE BY, R.: “Utilization of Internet of Things and Wireless Sensor Networks for Sustainable Smallholder Agriculture”, Sensors, 22(9): 3273, 2022, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s22093273. ; Adli et al., 2023ADLI, H.K.; REMLI, M.A.; SALIHIN, W.; ISMAIL, N.A.; GONZÁLEZ, A.; CORCHADO, J.M.; MOHAMAD, M.S.: “Recent Advancements and Challenges of AIoT Application in Smart Agriculture: A Review”, Sensors, 23(7): 3752, 2023, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s23073752. ).
In addition to water and nutrients, plant health is another critical factor for productivity. Traditionally, pest and disease detection has relied on visual inspection in the field, a laborious and subjective process that often detects the problem only when it is already advanced (Mahlein, 2016MAHLEIN, A.K.: “Plant disease detection by imaging sensors - parallels and specific demands for precision agriculture and plant phenotyping”, Plant Disease, 100(2): 241-251, 2016, ISSN: 0191-2917, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-03-15-0340-FE. ). Control, meanwhile, has historically been based on the uniform application of pesticides across the field, an approach that leads to inefficient use of chemicals, high economic costs, and serious environmental and human health impacts (Aktar et al., 2009AKTAR, M.W.; SENGUPTA, D.; CHOWDHURY, A.: “Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: their benefits and hazards”, Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 2(1): 1-12, 2009, ISSN: 1337-6853, DOI: http://doi.org/10.2478/v10102-009-0001-7. ; Nicolopoulou et al., 2016NICOLOPOULOU-STAMATI, P.; MAIPAS, S.; KOTAMPASI, C.; STAMATIS, P.; HENS, L.: “Chemical pesticides and human health: the urgent need for a new concept in agriculture”, Frontiers in Public Health, 4: 148, 2016, ISSN: 2296-2565, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2016.00148. ). The integration of AIoT systems offers a paradigm shift towards predictive and precision management, enabling early detection and localized action.
The Cuban agricultural sector is no stranger to these challenges and opportunities. It faces structural problems that limit its productivity, such as the technological obsolescence of agricultural machinery, with more than 80% of tractors being over 30 years old (estimated from data reported by Suárez & Ríos, (2019)SUÁREZ, J.; RÍOS, A.: “A diagnosis on existence and use of agricultural machinery in Cuba”, Ingeniería Agrícola, 9(4): 69-77, 2019, ISSN: 2227-8761., and the low efficiency of irrigation systems, where 70% of the areas use surface irrigation with efficiencies below 50% (Tejeda et al., 2025TEJEDA, V.; HERRERA, J.; RÍOS, A.; LÓPEZ, R.: “Agricultural Engineering in the System of the Cuban Agriculture, a Challenge in the Current Times”, Ingeniería Agrícola, 15, 2025, ISSN: 2227-8761.). These inefficiencies result in water losses exceeding 1.2 billion cubic meters annually and inefficient fertilizer use, with losses exceeding 40% (MINAG, 2023MINAG: Anuario Estadístico Agropecuario 2022, Ministerio de la Agricultura, La Habana, Cuba, 2023.). Given this reality, technological modernization has become a national strategic priority, recognized in the "Program for Technological and Business Modernization in the Agrochemical and Agricultural Machinery Production Sector" (ONUDI, 2024ONUDI (Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo Industrial): Programa de modernización tecnológica y empresarial en el sector de producción de agroquímicos y maquinaria agrícola (Mejora y modernización industrial en Cuba, fase II), ID 230317, 51 p., 2024.) and aligned with the objectives of the National Economic and Social Development Plan until 2030 (PNDES 2019PNDES (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo Económico y Social hasta 2030): Propuesta de Visión, Ejes y Sectores Estratégicos, La Habana, Cuba, Ministerio de Economía y Planificación (MEP), Resolución 30/2018 MINCEX, D-L 02/2019, 2019.).
The objective of this article is to analyze the state of the art of smart irrigation technologies, precision mechanization, and pest detection systems, and to evaluate the possibility of adapting these technologies to the Cuban context, identifying barriers and opportunities for successful implementation.
Materials and Methods
⌅A systematic literature review was conducted following the PRISMA 2020 principles (Page et al., 2021PAGE, M.J.; MCKENZIE, J.E.; BOSSUYT, P.M.; BOUTRON, I.; HOFFMANN, T.C.; MULROW, C.D.; SHAMSEER, L.; TETZLAFF, J.M.; AKL, E.A.; BRENNAN, S.E.: “The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic”, Reviews. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 134, 178-189, 2021. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.03.001. ), adapted for agricultural sciences (Prado et al., 2025PRADO, M., ÁVILA, B., QUIÑONEZ, J.: “Uso de tecnologías de agricultura de precisión en la optimización de sistemas de riego en pequeñas y medianas fincas de la comunidad El Cristal, Parroquia Alto Tambo, Cantón San Lorenzo”. Revista Social Fronteriza 5(3): e723, 2025. DOI: http://doi.org/10.59814/resofro.2025.5(3)723 ). The search was structured in four phases: planning, execution, synthesis, and analysis.
Search and Selection
⌅Strategy The Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases (2015-2026) were consulted using a search equation that combined terms related to precision agriculture, IoT, sensors, machine learning, water efficiency, and sustainability. Additionally, Cuban national sources were included to contextualize the local situation regarding machinery and irrigation.
The inclusion criteria were: (i) original articles or reviews; (ii) English/Spanish language; (iii) application of digital technologies to irrigation, mechanization, or pest detection; (iv) quantitative or qualitative results on water efficiency, yield, or sustainability. Editorials, studies without full text or direct empirical evidence (Prado et al., 2025PRADO, M., ÁVILA, B., QUIÑONEZ, J.: “Uso de tecnologías de agricultura de precisión en la optimización de sistemas de riego en pequeñas y medianas fincas de la comunidad El Cristal, Parroquia Alto Tambo, Cantón San Lorenzo”. Revista Social Fronteriza 5(3): e723, 2025. DOI: http://doi.org/10.59814/resofro.2025.5(3)723 ) and articles for which only the abstract was accessible due to access limitations from Cuba were excluded.
The selection process included: screening by title/abstract, full-text evaluation, and data extraction. From 437 initial records, 82 international articles and 6 Cuban sources were selected, totaling 88 documents analyzed.
Extraction, Synthesis, and Contextual Analysis
⌅A database was constructed with structured fields (author, technology, crop, quantitative results, barriers). For each technology, the information was synthesized in summary tables with the following fields: results obtained, country/region of study, bibliographic reference, feasibility of application in Cuba, and challenges/perspectives for its introduction.
The analysis was developed along two axes: (1) the global state of the art in precision irrigation technologies (IoT sensors, variable-rate irrigation, digital monitoring systems) and (2) a gap analysis for Cuba, considering barriers (technological obsolescence, low irrigation efficiency, limited connectivity, high costs) and opportunities (political will, skilled human capital, low-cost technologies < USD 50, free satellite data).
Based on this analysis, and following the recommendations of Prado et al. (2025)PRADO, M., ÁVILA, B., QUIÑONEZ, J.: “Uso de tecnologías de agricultura de precisión en la optimización de sistemas de riego en pequeñas y medianas fincas de la comunidad El Cristal, Parroquia Alto Tambo, Cantón San Lorenzo”. Revista Social Fronteriza 5(3): e723, 2025. DOI: http://doi.org/10.59814/resofro.2025.5(3)723 on low-cost hybrid systems for small and medium-sized farms, a three-phase (short, medium, and long term) phased implementation strategy was designed, prioritizing affordable technologies, shared machinery, mobile phone use, and local capacity building.
Results and Discussion
⌅Analysis of the selected articles confirms exponential growth in research on precision agriculture (PA) applied to irrigation, fertilization, and crop protection, especially since 2017. This coincides with the increased availability of low-cost technologies, such as IoT sensors and drones, and the rise of artificial intelligence techniques (Wolfert et al., 2017WOLFERT, S.; GE, L.; VERDOUW, C.; BOGAARDT, M.J.: “Big Data in Smart Farming-A Review”, Agricultural Systems, 153: 69-80, 2017, ISSN: 0308-521X, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2017.01.023. ; Liakos et al., 2018LIAKOS, K.G.; BUSATO, P.; MOSHOU, D.; PEARSON, S.; BOCHTIS, D.: “Machine learning in agriculture: A review”, Sensors, 18(8): 2674, 2018, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s18082674. ). Most studies focused on extensive crops such as maize, wheat, rice, and soybeans, which represent a large portion of the global agricultural area and have high input consumption.
State of the Art of Technologies
⌅Smart Irrigation and Water Management
⌅Smart irrigation systems have evolved from simple timer-based automation to complex, data-driven decision support systems (DSS). The fundamental component is soil moisture sensors, deployed on wireless network systems (WSNs) that use low-power protocols such as LoRaWAN, ZigBee, or NB-IoT to transmit data in real time (Ojha et al., 2015OJHA, T.; MISRA, S.; RAGHUWANSHI, N.S.: “Wireless sensor networks for agriculture: The state-of-the-art in practice and future challenges”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 118: 66-84, 2015, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2015.08.011. ; Jawad et al., 2017JAWAD, H.M.; NORDIN, R.; GHARGHAN, S.K.; JAWAD, A.M.; ISMAIL, M.: “Energy efficient wireless sensor networks for precision agriculture: A review”, Sensors, 17(8): 1781, 2017, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s17081781. ). Alongside these, automatic weather stations provide essential data for calculating reference evapotranspiration (ETo), a key parameter in water balance models (Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ; Morchid et al., 2026MORCHID, A.; QJIDAA, H.; ALAMI, R.E.; MOBAYEN, S.; SKRUCH, P.; BOSSOUFI, B.: “Smart irrigation-based internet of things and cloud computing technologies for sustainable Farming”, Scientific Reports, 16: 5293, 2026, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35810-0. ). The integration of these sensors with cloud platforms and AI algorithms enables precise remote irrigation management (Morchid et al., 2026MORCHID, A.; QJIDAA, H.; ALAMI, R.E.; MOBAYEN, S.; SKRUCH, P.; BOSSOUFI, B.: “Smart irrigation-based internet of things and cloud computing technologies for sustainable Farming”, Scientific Reports, 16: 5293, 2026, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35810-0. ).
A significant advancement has been the integration of machine learning (ML) algorithms. Models such as Random Forest, Support Vector Machines (SVM), and especially Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) recurrent neural networks are used to predict crop water requirements hours or days in advance, based on time series data from sensors and weather forecasts (Adeyemi et al., 2017ADEYEMI, O.; GROVE, I.; PEETS, S.; NORTON, T.: “Advanced monitoring and management systems for improving sustainability in precision irrigation”, Sustainability, 9(3): 353, 2017, ISSN: 2071-1050, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/su9030353. ; Goap et al., 2018GOAP, A.; SHARMA, D.; SHUKLA, A.K.; RAMA KRISHNA, C.: “An IoT based smart irrigation management system using machine learning and open source technologies”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 155: 41-49, 2018, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2018.09.040. ). These predictive models outperform threshold-based methods because they can anticipate demand and optimize water use more dynamically (Chlingaryan et al., 2018CHLINGARYAN, A.; SUKKARIEH, S.; WHELAN, B.: “Machine learning approaches for crop yield prediction and nitrogen status estimation in precision agriculture: A review”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 151: 61-69, 2018, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2018.05.012. ). Zhang et al. (2020)ZHANG, X.; CAO, Z.; DONG, W.: “Overview of edge computing in the agricultural internet of things: key technologies, applications, challenges”, IEEE Access, 8: 141748-141761, 2020, ISSN: 2169-3536, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3013005. demonstrated that LSTM models can predict soil water content with a root mean square error (RMSE) of less than 2-3%. Table 1 summarizes the most relevant findings in the area of smart irrigation and its potential for adaptation to the Cuban context.
| Aplicación / Tecnología | Result Obtained | Country/Region | Reference | Possibility of applying in Cuba | Challenges and Perspectives for its Introduction in Cuba |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sistema de riego autónomo con IoT y control difuso | Significant improvement in water savings and in the lifespan of the sensor network. Water savings of 61% compared to average methods. | China (simulation) | (Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ) | High performance, especially the low-cost version. The system is scalable and adaptable to different environments. | Field validation with local crops. Adaptation of the fuzzy algorithm to Cuban soil and climate conditions. |
| Low-cost IoT + cloud precision irrigation system | Precise environmental monitoring and optimal irrigation scheduling with an implementation cost of only $44 USD | Morocco (prototype) | (Morchid et al., 2026MORCHID, A.; QJIDAA, H.; ALAMI, R.E.; MOBAYEN, S.; SKRUCH, P.; BOSSOUFI, B.: “Smart irrigation-based internet of things and cloud computing technologies for sustainable Farming”, Scientific Reports, 16: 5293, 2026, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35810-0. ) | Very high. Low cost is crucial in the Cuban context. | Field trials with local crops and calibration of sensors for Cuban soils. Evaluation of long-term durability and performance under tropical conditions. |
| IoT + cloud smart irrigation system | Automation and real-time data analysis for optimal water management. | Morocco | (Elhoseny et al., 2026ELHOSENY, M.; JAHID, K.; LATIF, R.; SADDIK, A.; ATASSI, R.: “Recent advances in IoT-driven crop monitoring and precision irrigation: Technologies, models, and future challenges”, Scientific African, 2026, (en prensa), ISSN: 2468-2276, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2026.e03222. ) | High. The cloud platform enables remote monitoring and centralized decision-making. | Need to improve internet connectivity in rural areas. Adaptation of the platform to local crops and conditions. |
| Integrated system: satellite + ML + fuzzy logic | Water savings of approximately 70% compared to traditional methods. Crop prediction with ML (97.35% accuracy). | Bangladesh | (Saha et al., 2025SAHA, S.; KUCHER, O.D.; UTKINA, A.O.; REBOUH, N.Y.: “Precision agriculture for improving crop yield predictions: a literature review”, Frontiers in Agronomy, 7: 1566201, 2025, ISSN: 2673-3218, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2025.1566201. ) | High, but requires advanced technical capabilities. The combination of satellites, ML, and fuzzy logic is very promising. | Lack of data infrastructure and trained personnel in machine learning and remote sensing. High initial computational cost. |
| Meta-analysis of crop protection technologies | Reduction of herbicide use by up to 97% through selective application systems. | Global | (Anastasiou et al., 2023ANASTASIOU, E.; FOUNTAS, S.; VOULGARAKI, M.; PSIROUKIS, V.; KOUTSIARAS, M.; KRIEZI, O.; LAZAROU, E.; VATSANIDOU, A.; FU, L.; DI BARTOLO, F.; JESUS BARREIRO, J.; MANUEL GOMEZ, J.: “Precision farming technologies for crop protection: A meta-analysis”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 5: 100323, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100323. ) | Potential for high-value crops. Input savings are very attractive, but the technology requires investment. | Cost of spot spraying equipment. Need to develop accurate prescription maps for local conditions. |
Technologies for Precision Nutrient Management
⌅Precision nutrient management aims to optimize fertilization by applying the correct dose at the right time and place, requiring a detailed understanding of the spatial and temporal variability of soil fertility and crop nutritional status. Sensors play a crucial role in this process. Soil nutrient sensors (for N, P, and K) allow for high-resolution spatial mapping of soil fertility (Islam et al., 2023ISLAM, M.R.; OLIULLAH, K.; KABIR, M.M.; ALOM, M.; MRIDHA, M.F.: “Machine learning enabled IoT system for soil nutrients monitoring and crop recommendation”, Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 14: 100880, 2023, ISSN: 2666-1543, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100880. ). However, active optical sensors (such as the GreenSeeker or Crop Circle) are more common for real-time application and have become established as relatively low-cost, highly effective tools. These sensors, mounted on sprayers or drones, measure the reflectance of the crop canopy in specific spectral bands (red, red edge, near-infrared) to calculate vegetation indices such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) or the Normalized Difference Red Edge Vegetation Index (NDRE), which are correlated with chlorophyll content and crop vigor, and therefore with its nutrient requirements (Wolters et al., 2019WOLTERS, S.; SÖDERSTRÖM, M.; PIIKKI, K.; STENBERG, M.: “Near-real time winter wheat N uptake from a combination of proximal and remote optical measurements: How to refine Sentinel-2 satellite images for use in a precision agriculture decision support system”, Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Precision Agriculture, Montpellier, France, 8-11 July 2019, Wageningen Academic Publishers, pp. 415-421, 2019, ISBN: 978-90-8686-337-2.; Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ).
In addition to optical sensors, electrochemical and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy sensors are gaining ground for in-situ soil nutrient monitoring. Although their use is more complex, they offer the possibility of creating high-resolution fertility maps (Adamchuk et al., 2004ADAMCHUK, V.I.; HUMMEL, J.W.; MORGAN, M.T.; UPADHYAYA, S.K.: “On-the-go soil sensors for precision agriculture”, Computers and electronics in agriculture, 44(1): 71-91, 2004, ISSN: 0168-1699.).
Variable rate technology (VRT) integrates real-time sensor data or prescription maps to adjust the amount of fertilizer applied to different areas of a field (Koch et al., 2004KOCH, B.; KHOSLA, R.; FRASIER, W.M.; WESTFALL, D.G.; INMAN, D.: “Economic feasibility of variable-rate nitrogen application utilizing site-specific management zones”, Agronomy Journal, 96(6): 1572-1580, 2004, ISSN: 0002-1962, DOI: http://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2004.1572. ; Schimmelpfennig & Ebel, 2016SCHIMMELPFENNIG, D.; EBEL, R.: “Sequential Adoption and Cost Savings from Precision Agriculture”, Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 41(1): 97-115, 2016, ISSN: 1068-5502, DOI: http://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.230771. ). VRT systems for solid and liquid fertilizers are commercially available and connect to GPS-equipped tractors. Research shows that VRT can increase nitrogen use efficiency by more than 20% by applying fertilizer where it is most needed, reducing over-application in low-potential areas and under-application in high-potential areas (Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ).
The reviewed studies consistently demonstrate that precision fertilization can reduce total nitrogen fertilizer use by 10% to 30% without compromising yield, and in many cases even slightly increasing it (Colaço & Bramley, 2018COLAÇO, A.F.; BRAMLEY, R.G.: “Do crop sensors promote improved nitrogen management in grain crops?”, Field Crops Research, 218: 126-140, 2018, ISSN: 0378-4290, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2018.01.017. ). This improved efficiency translates into significant economic and environmental savings by reducing nitrate leaching losses and greenhouse gas emissions (Diacono et al., 2013). The use of integrated platforms such as ifarma/PreFer, which combine sensor data, satellite imagery, and machine learning (ML) algorithms, allows for closing the precision fertilization loop by generating fertilizer prescription maps from multiple data sources, facilitating its implementation at the farm level (Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ).
Precision Machining and Agricultural Robotics
⌅In the field of mechanization, innovations are focused on autonomous robotics and unmanned vehicles. Ground-based (UGV) and aerial (UAV) robots are transforming field operations, from planting to harvesting, offering unprecedented precision and addressing the growing labor shortage (Comparetti et al., 2025COMPARETTI, A.; FAGIOLINI, A.; FOUNTAS, S.; CASCIO, V.: “Field robots for precision agriculture”, AIMS Agriculture and Food, 10(4): 885-916, 2025, ISSN: 2471-2086, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2025046. ). Table 2 summarizes the most significant advances in this area.
| Aplicación / Tecnología | Result Obtained | Country / Region | Reference | Possibility of applying in Cuba | Challenges and Perspectives for its Introduction in Cuba |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Field robots (UGVs) for precision agriculture | Classification of UGVs according to size and function. Their role in planting, crop protection, and fruit harvesting is noteworthy. | Global | (Comparetti et al., 2025COMPARETTI, A.; FAGIOLINI, A.; FOUNTAS, S.; CASCIO, V.: “Field robots for precision agriculture”, AIMS Agriculture and Food, 10(4): 885-916, 2025, ISSN: 2471-2086, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2025046. ) | Low in the short term, potential in the medium term. Advanced robotics requires high investment and maintenance. | High acquisition and maintenance costs. Obsolescence of current machinery. Lack of specialized technical personnel in robotics. |
| Autonomous driving in agricultural machinery | Review of key technologies: navigation, perception, control, and fault tolerance. Commercial adoption limited by cost and lack of standardization. | Global | (Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ) | Short-term decline. Autonomous machinery is still expensive and requires modern tractors with compatible electronic systems. | The Cuban machinery fleet is mostly obsolete (over 30 years old). A thorough fleet renewal is needed. |
| Autonomous robots for mechanical weeding | Intelligent robotic row weeding system that combines deep learning with a selective weeding mode. High efficiency in weed removal. | China | (Quan et al., 2022QUAN, L.; JIANG, W.; LI, H.; LI, H.; WANG, Q.; CHEN, L.: “Intelligent intra-row robotic weeding system combining deep learning technology with a targeted weeding mode”, Biosystems Engineering, 216: 13-31, 2022, ISSN: 1537-5110, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2022.01.019. ) | Potential for organic or high-value crops. Mechanical weeding reduces reliance on herbicides. | Robot cost. Validation of the technology in Cuban crops (e.g., vegetables, tobacco). Adaptation to different soil types and field conditions. |
| Autonomous harvesting robots | Harvesting robots for strawberries that address labor shortages, increasing productivity and accuracy. | USA | (McFadden et al., 2024McFADDEN, J.; ERICKSON, B.; LOWENBERG, J.; MILICS, G.: “Global Adoption of Precision Agriculture: An Update on Trends and Emerging Technologies”, en: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Precision Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas, USA, 21-24 July 2024, pp. 1-16.) | Short-term price decrease. Technology still under development and with high costs, intended for high-value crops on large farms. | High-value Cuban crops (e.g., tobacco, fruits) could be niche applications, but the initial investment is prohibitive. |
| Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs/drones) | A consolidated tool for crop monitoring, creation of prescription maps (NDVI), and detection of water stress and diseases. | Global | (Tsouros et al., 2019TSOUROS, D.C.; BIBI, S.; SARIGIANNIDIS, P.G.: “A review on UAV-based applications for precision agriculture”, Information, 10(11): 349, 2019, ISSN: 2078-2489, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/info10110349. ; Velusamy et al., 2022VELUSAMY, P.; RAJENDRAN, S.; MAHENDRAN, R.K.; NASEER, S.; SHAFIQ, M.; CHOI, J.G.: “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in Precision Agriculture: Applications and Challenges”, Energies, 15(1): 217, 2022, ISSN: 1996-1073, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/en15010217. ) | High, especially for monitoring. Low-cost commercial drones are accessible and can be operated with basic training. | Flight regulations. Need to process and interpret images to generate actionable agronomic recommendations (requires training). |
AIoT Systems for Pest Detection and Management
⌅The convergence of IoT and Deep Learning (AIoT) enables a shift from reactive, broad-spectrum pest management to predictive, precision management. IoT, through wireless sensor networks, weather stations, and smart traps, provides the layer for collecting massive amounts of real-time data on environmental conditions and pest presence (Elijah et al., 2018ELIJAH, O.; RAHMAN, T.A.; ORIKUMHI, I.; LEOW, C.Y.; HINDIA, M.N.: “An overview of Internet of Things (IoT) and data analytics in agriculture: Benefits and challenges”, IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 5(5): 3758-3773, 2018, ISSN: 2327-4662, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2018.2844296. ; Xu et al., 2022XU, J.; GU, B.; TIAN, G.: “Review of agricultural IoT technology”, Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture, 6: 10-22, 2022, ISSN: 2589-7217, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.aiia.2022.01.001. ). AI, and in particular Deep Learning (DL), equips systems with the ability to analyze these enormous amounts of data (images, time series) to identify subtle patterns, classify diseases, and predict outbreaks with unprecedented accuracy (Kamilaris & Prenafeta-Boldú, 2018KAMILARIS, A.; PRENAFETA-BOLDÚ, F.X.: “Deep learning in agriculture: A survey”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 147: 70-90, 2018, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2018.02.016. ; Liakos et al., 2018LIAKOS, K.G.; BUSATO, P.; MOSHOU, D.; PEARSON, S.; BOCHTIS, D.: “Machine learning in agriculture: A review”, Sensors, 18(8): 2674, 2018, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s18082674. ). Table 3 summarizes the most relevant advances in this area.
| Aplicación / Tecnología | Result Obtained | Country / Region | Reference | Possibility of applying in Cuba | Challenges and Perspectives for its Introduction in Cuba |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Disease detection with hyperspectral imaging | Detection of wheat yellow rust with 90-95% accuracy before visible symptoms. | China | (Huang et al., 2007HUANG, W.; LAMB, D.W.; NIU, Z.; ZHANG, Y.; LIU, L.; WANG, J.: “Identification of yellow rust in wheat using in-situ spectral reflectance measurements and airborne hyperspectral imaging”, Precision Agriculture, 8: 187-197, 2007, ISSN: 1385-2256, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1007/s11119-007-9038-9. ) | Medium. Requires specialized equipment (hyperspectral cameras) and trained personnel. | High cost of equipment. Need to develop spectral libraries for local crops and diseases. |
| IoT smart traps for monitoringinsectos | Automatic counting and classification of insects with 90-96% accuracy. | Greece | (Potamitis et al., 2014POTAMITIS, I.; RIGAKIS, I.; FYSARAKIS, K.: “The electronic McPhail trap”, Sensors, 14(12): 22285-22299, 2014, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s141222285. ) | High. Relatively low-cost technology that can be replicated with local components. | Development of traps adapted to the main pests of Cuba. Field validation. Training for data interpretation. |
| Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for disease classification. | CNN models (AlexNet, ResNet, YOLO) achieve >95% accuracy in foliar disease classification. | Global | (Singh & Gupta, 2018SINGH, S.; GUPTA, S.: “Apple scab and marsonina coronaria diseases detection in apple leaves using machine learning”, International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 118(9): 1151-1166, 2018, ISSN: 1311-8080.; Jiang et al., 2019JIANG, P.; CHEN, Y.; LIU, B.; HE, D.; LIANG, C.: “Real-time detection of apple leaf diseases using deep learning approach based on improved convolutional neural networks”, IEEE Access, 7: 59069-59080, 2019, ISSN: 2169-3536, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2914929. ) | High, as an extension support tool. CNN-based mobile applications can be used by technicians and farmers. | Development of local databases of disease images. Adaptation of pre-trained models to Cuban conditions. Training in the use of applications. |
| Selective application systems (spot spraying). | Reduction of herbicide use by up to 90% through localized spraying. | USA | (Partel et al., 2019PARTEL, V.; CHARAN KAKARLA, S.; AMPATZIDIS, Y.: “Development and evaluation of a low-cost and smart technology for precision weed management utilizing artificial intelligence”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 157: 339-350, 2019, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2018.12.048. ) | Potential for high-value crops. Input savings may justify the investment. | Equipment costs. Need to develop accurate prescription maps. Validation under local conditions. |
| Autonomous mechanical weeding robots | Elimination of 80-90% of weeds in organic crops, reducing dependence on herbicides. | Europe | (Machleb et al., 2020MACHLEB, J.; PETEINATOS, G.G.; KOLLENDA, B.L.; ANDÚJAR, D.; GERHARDS, R.: “Sensor-based mechanical weed control: present state and prospects”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 176: 105638, 2020, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2020.105638. ) | Potential for urban and peri-urban agriculture, and for high-value organic crops. | Robot cost. Validation in Cuban crops (e.g., vegetables, tobacco). Adaptation to different soil types. |
| Release of biological control agents using drones. | Precise release of parasitoid wasps in affected areas, optimizing biological control. | USA | (Teske et al., 2019TESKE, A.L.; CHEN, G.; NANSEN, C.; KONG, Z.: “Optimised dispensing of predatory mites by multirotor UAVs in wind: a distribution pattern modelling approach for precision pest management”, Biosystems Engineering, 187: 226-238, 2019, ISSN: 1537-5110, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2019.09.009. ) | Medium potential. Requires coordination between biological control programs and drone technology. | Flight regulations. Staff training. Integration with existing biological control programs in Cuba. |
Technology Integration: AIoT, Agricultural Management Systems (FMIS) and Digital Twins
⌅The true potential of digital agriculture is realized through the integration of all technologies on unified platforms. Integrated Farm Management Systems (IFMS) act as the brain of the operation, integrating data from sensors, satellites, and machinery to generate precise recommendations. Modern IFMS have evolved from simple logging tools to comprehensive cloud-based platforms that offer a wide range of functionalities: field and crop management, integration of data from multiple sources, traceability, economic analysis, and prescription map generation (Paraforos et al., 2017PARAFOROS, D.S.; VASSILIADIS, V.; KORTENBRUCK, D.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; ZIOGAS, V.; SAPOUNAS, A.A.; GRIEPENTROG, H.W.: “Multi-level automation of farm management information systems”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 142: 504-514, 2017, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.11.022. ; Comparetti et al., 2025COMPARETTI, A.; FAGIOLINI, A.; FOUNTAS, S.; CASCIO, V.: “Field robots for precision agriculture”, AIMS Agriculture and Food, 10(4): 885-916, 2025, ISSN: 2471-2086, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2025046. ).
The synergy between IFMS and VRT is clear: IFMS acts as the "brain" that integrates and analyzes data and generates prescriptions, which VRT, like the "arm," then executes in the field. In turn, the data generated during the VRT application (e.g., real-world application maps) feeds back into the FMIS, closing the loop and enabling continuous learning and improvement (Paraforos et al., 2017PARAFOROS, D.S.; VASSILIADIS, V.; KORTENBRUCK, D.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; ZIOGAS, V.; SAPOUNAS, A.A.; GRIEPENTROG, H.W.: “Multi-level automation of farm management information systems”, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 142: 504-514, 2017, ISSN: 0168-1699, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.11.022. ; Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ).
Digital twins take this concept a step further, allowing for the simulation and optimization of scenarios before field implementation (Purcell & Neubauer, 2023PURCELL, W.; NEUBAUER, T.: “Digital Twins in Agriculture: A State-of-the-Art Review”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 3: 100094, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2022.100094. ; Escribà et al., 2024ESCRIBÀ, M.; LIANG, S.; VAN SCHALKWYK, P.; FISK, I.; LONG, N.V.D.; HESSEL, V.: “Digital twins in agriculture: orchestration and applications”, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 72(19): 10737-10752, 2024, ISSN: 0021-8561, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01934. ). Table 4 summarizes the most relevant advances in this area.
| Aplicación / Tecnología | Result Obtained | Country / Region | Reference | Possibility of applying in Cuba | Challenges and Perspectives for its Introduction in Cuba |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Precision fertilization service (PreFer) integrated into FMIS (ifarma) | A system that combines sensor data, satellite imagery, and machine learning to generate fertilizer prescription maps. It demonstrates how data integration can close the precision agriculture cycle. | Greece | (Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ) | Alta, as a model to follow. A similar system could be developed for Cuba, integrating local data. | Need for a national or regional FMIS. Requires data infrastructure and personnel trained in machine learning and remote sensing. Inter-institutional coordination. |
| Integrated systems architecture for smart agriculture | Integration of IoT sensors, cloud computing and AI/ML algorithms to optimize operations (irrigation, fertilization, spraying). | Global | (Padhiary et al., 2025PADHIARY, M.; KUMAR, A.; NARAYAN, L.: “Emerging technologies for smart and sustainable precision agriculture”, Discover Robotics, 1: 6, 2025, ISSN: 3004-9157, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1007/s44430-025-00006-0. ) | Media, as a long-term vision. The proposed architecture is complex and requires advanced technological infrastructure. | Develop a simplified architecture adapted to Cuban conditions. Prioritize interoperability and the use of open standards. |
| Digital twins in agriculture | Virtual replicas of farms that allow simulating the impact of different management strategies (irrigation, fertilization, rotation) before implementing them. | Global | (Purcell & Neubauer, 2023PURCELL, W.; NEUBAUER, T.: “Digital Twins in Agriculture: A State-of-the-Art Review”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 3: 100094, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2022.100094. ; Escribà et al., 2024ESCRIBÀ, M.; LIANG, S.; VAN SCHALKWYK, P.; FISK, I.; LONG, N.V.D.; HESSEL, V.: “Digital twins in agriculture: orchestration and applications”, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 72(19): 10737-10752, 2024, ISSN: 0021-8561, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01934. ) | Low short-term price, long-term potential. Emerging technology that requires large volumes of data and high computing power. | Develop digital twins for strategic crops (e.g., sugarcane, rice, tobacco) in collaboration with research centers. Training staff in modeling and simulation is key. |
| Conversational assistants based on generative AI | They provide personalized agronomic advice to farmers, adapted to their specific conditions and in natural language. | Global (conceptual) | (Boscán & Boscán, 2025BOSCÁN BOSCÁN, A.C.; BOSCÁN BOSCÁN, A.J.: “Artificial intelligence in agriculture: A view from a sustainable development perspective”, Agrociencia Uruguay, 29: e1502, 2025, ISSN: 2730-5066, DOI: http://doi.org/10.31285/AGRO.29.1502. ) | High potential in the medium term. Once the Cuban agronomic knowledge base is developed, this technology could be very useful for agricultural extension. | Create a digital knowledge base with local agronomic information (soils, crops, climate, practices). Train specialists in the use and development of these tools. |
Analysis of Adaptability to the Cuban Context
⌅The transfer of these technologies to Cuba faces significant barriers encompassing technical, economic, institutional, and social aspects. However, it also presents unique opportunities that can be leveraged for successful adaptation.
Barriers and Challenges
⌅A key structural challenge is the obsolescence of the agricultural machinery fleet. It is estimated that more than 80% of tractors in Cuba are over 30 years old. This reality hinders the integration of automatic guidance systems, VRT, and sensors that require electronic compatibility and modern communication systems. The simple installation of an ISOBUS adaptation kit (international standard ISO 11783), for example, is not feasible on most of this equipment without a profound technological upgrade. This limitation is exacerbated by the lack of standardization and interoperability between different platforms and manufacturers, which generates isolated data repositories and hinders system integration (Gupta & Kumar, 2025GUPTA, G.; KUMAR, S.: “Applications of AI in precision agriculture”, Discover Agriculture, 3: 61, 2025, ISSN: 2731-9598, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-025-00220-9. ).
In the water sector, the inefficiency of irrigation systems is another major problem. Seventy percent of cultivated areas use surface irrigation with efficiencies below 50%, representing an annual loss of more than 1.2 billion cubic meters of water (MINAG, 2023MINAG: Anuario Estadístico Agropecuario 2022, Ministerio de la Agricultura, La Habana, Cuba, 2023.; Tejeda et al., 2025TEJEDA, V.; HERRERA, J.; RÍOS, A.; LÓPEZ, R.: “Agricultural Engineering in the System of the Cuban Agriculture, a Challenge in the Current Times”, Ingeniería Agrícola, 15, 2025, ISSN: 2227-8761.). This situation reflects not only a technological problem but also a lack of monitoring and control systems. The high investment costs for technologies such as precision sensors, high-end drones, and automated irrigation systems represent a significant economic barrier, especially for small and medium-sized farms (Pierpaoli et al., 2013PIERPAOLI, E.; CARLIA, G.; PIGNATTI, E.; CANAVARI, M.: CDrivers of precision agriculture technologies adoption: A literature review”, Procedia Technology, 8: 61-69, 2013, ISSN: 2212-0173, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2013.11.010. ). Munz & Schuele (2022)MUNZ, J.; SCHUELE, H.: “Influencing the Success of Precision Farming Technology Adoption-A Model-Based Investigation of Economic Success Factors in Small-Scale Agriculture”, Agriculture, 12(11): 1773, 2022, ISSN: 2077-0472, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111773. demonstrate, through a sensitivity analysis, that the profitability of precision technologies like VRT is strongly influenced by farm size, which poses an additional challenge in the context of small and medium-sized agriculture, such as that of Cuba.
Added to this are infrastructure limitations, such as poor internet connectivity in rural areas, which affects the real-time transmission of data from sensors and IoT systems (Elijah et al., 2018ELIJAH, O.; RAHMAN, T.A.; ORIKUMHI, I.; LEOW, C.Y.; HINDIA, M.N.: “An overview of Internet of Things (IoT) and data analytics in agriculture: Benefits and challenges”, IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 5(5): 3758-3773, 2018, ISSN: 2327-4662, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2018.2844296. ; Bayih et al., 2022BAYIH, A.; MORALES, J.; ASSABIE, Y.; DE BY, R.: “Utilization of Internet of Things and Wireless Sensor Networks for Sustainable Smallholder Agriculture”, Sensors, 22(9): 3273, 2022, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s22093273. ). Finally, the technical complexity and the need for specialized training to manage and interpret the generated data limit adoption (Aubert et al., 2012AUBERT, B.A.; SCHROEDER, A.; GRIMAUDO, J.: “IT as enabler of sustainable farming: An empirical analysis of farmers' adoption decision of precision agriculture technology”, Decision Support Systems, 54(1): 510-520, 2012, ISSN: 0167-9236, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2012.05.048. ). Simply acquiring a sensor is not enough; trained personnel are required to calibrate it, interpret its data, and integrate it into a decision-making system. The lack of this specialized human capital is a barrier common to all the technologies analyzed.
In the specific case of AIoT systems for pest detection, the generalizability of AI models remains a problem. A model trained in one geographic region or with a specific crop variety may not function correctly under other conditions (Anastasiou et al., 2023ANASTASIOU, E.; FOUNTAS, S.; VOULGARAKI, M.; PSIROUKIS, V.; KOUTSIARAS, M.; KRIEZI, O.; LAZAROU, E.; VATSANIDOU, A.; FU, L.; DI BARTOLO, F.; JESUS BARREIRO, J.; MANUEL GOMEZ, J.: “Precision farming technologies for crop protection: A meta-analysis”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 5: 100323, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100323. ). The need for large amounts of labeled data for training is another limitation, although techniques such as semi-supervised and transfer learning are emerging to mitigate it (Li et al., 2021LI, Y.; CHAO, X.: “Semi-supervised few-shot learning approach for plant diseases recognition”, Plant Methods, 17: 68, 2021, ISSN: 1746-4811, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1186/s13007-021-00770-1. ; Benchallal et al., 2024BENCHALLAL, F.; HAFINE, A.; RAGOT, N.; CANALS, R.: “ConvNeXt based semi-supervised approach with consistency regularization for weeds classification”, Expert Systems with Applications, 239: 122222, 2024, ISSN: 0957-4174, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.122222. ). Integrating heterogeneous data (images, weather, soil) remains a technical and computational challenge (Cravero & Sepúlveda, 2021CRAVERO, A.; SEPÚLVEDA, S.: “Use and adaptations of machine learning in big data-applications in real cases in agriculture”, Electronics, 10(5): 552, 2021, ISSN: 2079-9292, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10050552. ).
Needs and Opportunities
⌅Despite the barriers, there are key opportunities that can be leveraged. First, there is the political will for modernization, as evidenced by the ONUDI (2024)ONUDI (Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo Industrial): Programa de modernización tecnológica y empresarial en el sector de producción de agroquímicos y maquinaria agrícola (Mejora y modernización industrial en Cuba, fase II), ID 230317, 51 p., 2024. and its alignment with the National Sustainable Development Plan 2030. Cuba has a qualified human capital in institutions such as the Institute of Agricultural Engineering Research (IAgric), the Agrarian University of Havana (UNAH), the National Institute of Agricultural Sciences (INCA), the University of Havana (UH), the Comprehensive Automation Company (CEDAI), etc., which possess extensive experience in agricultural engineering, irrigation (design, evaluation, and management of irrigation systems), and mechanization, necessary for the implementation of smart irrigation and precision agriculture (Kushwaha et al., 2024KUSHWAHA, M.; SINGH, S.; SINGH, V.; DWIVEDI, S.: “Precision Farming: A Review of Methods, Technologies, and Future Prospects”, International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 9(2), 2024, ISSN: 2456-1878, DOI: http://doi.org/10.22161/ijeab.92.27. ). This knowledge base can serve as the foundation for building local capacity in digital agriculture.
The availability of low-cost technologies is another crucial opportunity. The study by Elhoseny et al. (2026)ELHOSENY, M.; JAHID, K.; LATIF, R.; SADDIK, A.; ATASSI, R.: “Recent advances in IoT-driven crop monitoring and precision irrigation: Technologies, models, and future challenges”, Scientific African, 2026, (en prensa), ISSN: 2468-2276, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2026.e03222. demonstrates that it is possible to implement smart irrigation systems at a cost of only US$44, making them potentially accessible to producers with small farms. Likewise, access to free satellite data (such as that from the Sentinel-2 mission) allows for the generation of NDVI maps and the estimation of water requirements without a significant initial investment (Marques et al., 2020MARQUES, J.R.; TERRÓN, J.M.; DOMÍNGUEZ, F.J.; PAIXÃO, L.: “Agricultura de Precisión con Imágenes de Satélite”, en: Manual de Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas, cap. II, pp. 25-48, 2020, ISBN: 978-989-33-0549-2.; Saha et al., 2025SAHA, S.; KUCHER, O.D.; UTKINA, A.O.; REBOUH, N.Y.: “Precision agriculture for improving crop yield predictions: a literature review”, Frontiers in Agronomy, 7: 1566201, 2025, ISSN: 2673-3218, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2025.1566201. ). International cooperation, such as that established through UNIDO and other agencies (FAO, UNDP), can provide a channel for technology and knowledge transfer, which should be leveraged to adapt global solutions to the local context.
For successful adaptation, the following prioritized needs are identified, with an emphasis on precision irrigation. Transition from inefficient irrigation systems to more efficient ones:
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Diagnosis and basic modernization of irrigation systems: Evaluate the current state of irrigation systems to identify losses and opportunities for improvement, with an emphasis on the transition from surface irrigation to more efficient pressurized systems.
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Introduction of low-cost soil moisture sensors with intermittent connectivity (offline/online): Implement low-cost sensors (Elhoseny et al., 2026ELHOSENY, M.; JAHID, K.; LATIF, R.; SADDIK, A.; ATASSI, R.: “Recent advances in IoT-driven crop monitoring and precision irrigation: Technologies, models, and future challenges”, Scientific African, 2026, (en prensa), ISSN: 2468-2276, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2026.e03222. ) in pilot areas. Given the connectivity limitations in rural areas, a practical first step is the use of sensors that operate with intermittent connectivity (local data recording with periodic download), subsequently progressing to hybrid systems that combine local storage with intermittent transmission, until real-time monitoring (continuous connection) is achieved. A complementary option is the development of robust, easy-to-use, and replaceable sensors for the spot and semi-instantaneous determination of soil moisture, linked to cell phones to allow farmers or technicians to make on-site decisions.
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Training in efficient water management: Train technicians and farmers in irrigation scheduling based on reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and the interpretation of sensor data, even under conditions of limited connectivity.
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Development of IoT-based automated irrigation systems: Implement systems that integrate sensors, weather stations, and fuzzy logic control algorithms (Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ) to automate irrigation, prioritizing solutions that function with intermittent connectivity.
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Strengthening FMIS platforms for integrated water management: Develop local platforms that integrate sensor data, soil moisture maps, and water requirements (Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ), with the capacity to operate offline/online and with periodic synchronization.
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Training specialists in water requirements modeling: Train professionals in the use of water balance and evapotranspiration models, adapted to locally available data.
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Developing irrigation prescription maps: Generate prescription maps based on satellite data, soil sensors, and crop models (Saha et al., 2025SAHA, S.; KUCHER, O.D.; UTKINA, A.O.; REBOUH, N.Y.: “Precision agriculture for improving crop yield predictions: a literature review”, Frontiers in Agronomy, 7: 1566201, 2025, ISSN: 2673-3218, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2025.1566201. ), using tools that do not require continuous connectivity.
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Implementing autonomous irrigation systems with AI: Introduce systems that integrate sensor data, climate forecasts, and satellite imagery (Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ) in pilot projects, considering architectures that allow for local processing in case of disconnection.
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Development of digital twins for irrigation optimization: Creating virtual replicas of irrigation systems to simulate climate scenarios and evaluate management strategies (Purcell & Neubauer, 2023PURCELL, W.; NEUBAUER, T.: “Digital Twins in Agriculture: A State-of-the-Art Review”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 3: 100094, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2022.100094. ), leveraging centralized computing centers.
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Integration of renewable energies: Incorporating solar and wind pumping systems to reduce energy dependence and irrigation operating costs.
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Automation of fertigation: Developing automated systems that integrate variable-rate application of water and fertilizers, optimizing both resources simultaneously.
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Gradual implementation of automatic guidance systems: Adapting automatic guidance systems to existing machinery to reduce overlaps, improve application uniformity, and optimize fuel consumption (Vrchota et al., 2022VRCHOTA, J.; PECH, M.; ŠVEPEŠOVÁ, I.: “Precision Agriculture Technologies for Crop and Livestock Production in the Czech Republic”, Agriculture, 12(8): 1080, 2022, ISSN: 2077-0472, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12081080. ; McFadden et al., 2023). Given the obsolescence of the machinery fleet (more than 80% of tractors are over 30 years old), a phased implementation strategy is proposed.
Gradual Implementation Strategy
⌅Based on the identified needs, a three-phase, phased approach is proposed, prioritizing precision irrigation as a fundamental pillar and the introduction of low-cost, high-impact technologies.
Phase 1 (Immediate, 1 to 2 years): Introduction of low-cost, high-impact technologies
⌅Prioritized actions
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The desired outcome is the implementation of low-cost soil moisture sensors (Elhoseny et al., 2026ELHOSENY, M.; JAHID, K.; LATIF, R.; SADDIK, A.; ATASSI, R.: “Recent advances in IoT-driven crop monitoring and precision irrigation: Technologies, models, and future challenges”, Scientific African, 2026, (en prensa), ISSN: 2468-2276, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2026.e03222. ) in strategic crops (rice, corn, beans, vegetables, and tobacco) for real-time monitoring. However, a more practical first step in the current Cuban context is the use of sensors that operate with intermittent connectivity, subsequently progressing to hybrid systems that combine intermittent and continuous connectivity, ultimately achieving real-time monitoring (continuous connection).
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Development of robust, easy-to-use, and replaceable sensors for determining point, discrete, and semi-instantaneous soil moisture, linked to cell phones for on-site decision-making.
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Development of CNN-based mobile applications for disease diagnosis (Singh & Gupta, 2018SINGH, S.; GUPTA, S.: “Apple scab and marsonina coronaria diseases detection in apple leaves using machine learning”, International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 118(9): 1151-1166, 2018, ISSN: 1311-8080.) and irrigation management, capable of operating offline.
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Intensive training in efficient water management for IAgric technicians and extension agents on irrigation scheduling based on ETo and sensor data.
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Monitoring with drones equipped with multispectral and thermal cameras for detecting water stress and other crop problems (Tsouros et al., 2019TSOUROS, D.C.; BIBI, S.; SARIGIANNIDIS, P.G.: “A review on UAV-based applications for precision agriculture”, Information, 10(11): 349, 2019, ISSN: 2078-2489, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/info10110349. ; Velusamy et al., 2022VELUSAMY, P.; RAJENDRAN, S.; MAHENDRAN, R.K.; NASEER, S.; SHAFIQ, M.; CHOI, J.G.: “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in Precision Agriculture: Applications and Challenges”, Energies, 15(1): 217, 2022, ISSN: 1996-1073, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/en15010217. ).
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Creation of a national Agricultural Management System (FMIS), adapted to local conditions, to serve as an integrating platform for all data (low-cost sensors, free satellite imagery, local weather forecasts), with the capacity for periodic synchronization in areas with limited connectivity.
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Strengthening rural connectivity, prioritizing investments in connectivity infrastructure to progressively enable real-time data transmission.
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Widespread use of solar and wind pumping systems to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and operating costs.
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Gradual introduction of automated guidance systems for machinery (Vrchota et al., 2022VRCHOTA, J.; PECH, M.; ŠVEPEŠOVÁ, I.: “Precision Agriculture Technologies for Crop and Livestock Production in the Czech Republic”, Agriculture, 12(8): 1080, 2022, ISSN: 2077-0472, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12081080. ; McFadden et al., 2023McFADDEN, J.; NJUKI, E.; GRIFFIN, T.: “Precision agriculture in the digital era: recent adoption on U.S. Farms”, Economic Information Bulletin No. 248, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 2023, Disponible en: https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/105894/eib-248.pdf [Consulta: 17 de abril de 2026].). As a first, very low-cost option, using the operator's mobile phone (with an appropriate app) as a navigation assistant to guide movement in the field, operating under intermittent connectivity conditions (without requiring a permanent internet connection, only a GPS signal). This solution allows for increased operating efficiency of aging machinery, reducing overlaps and fuel consumption.
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Building local capacity around these technologies, transforming our technicians and agronomists into the specialists who adapt, calibrate, and operate these systems.
Expected results
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Reduction in water consumption of 20-30% in pilot areas.
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Decreased operating costs due to lower fuel consumption and reduced overlaps through the use of mobile phones as navigation assistants.
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Building local capacity in sensor management (including offline/online operation), precision irrigation, basic mobile guidance, and drone monitoring.
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Implementation of a national FMIS platform that integrates basic field data.
Phase 2 (Short/Medium Term - 3-5 years): Development and implementation of more complex systems. Prioritized actions
⌅Prioritized actions
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Development of IoT-based automated irrigation systems that integrate sensors, weather stations, and fuzzy logic control algorithms (Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ), with the capacity to operate in hybrid mode (local + cloud).
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Implementation of drip irrigation with variable flow control in crops with high water demand.
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Strengthening an FMIS platform adapted to local conditions that integrates sensor data, soil moisture maps, and climate forecasts (Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ).
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Development of irrigation prescription maps based on satellite data and soil sensors (Saha et al., 2025SAHA, S.; KUCHER, O.D.; UTKINA, A.O.; REBOUH, N.Y.: “Precision agriculture for improving crop yield predictions: a literature review”, Frontiers in Agronomy, 7: 1566201, 2025, ISSN: 2673-3218, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2025.1566201. ).
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Establishing partnerships with international centers for model validation.
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Advancing the installation of automatic guidance systems on existing modern equipment in the country's main agricultural hubs and as the fleet is renewed.
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Development and implementation of VRT systems for fertilization and pest control in high-value crops and in areas with high spatial variability of soils, based on prescription maps generated from free satellite data (such as Sentinel-2) and soil analysis, similar to the "PreFer" service (Karydas et al., 2023KARYDAS, C.; CHATZIANTONIOU, M.; STAMKOPOULOS, K.; IATROU, M.; VASSILIADIS, V.; MOURELATOS, S.: “Embedding a precision agriculture service into a farm management information system - ifarma/PreFer”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 4: 100175, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2023.100175. ).
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Development of smart traps adapted to the main pests of Cuba (Potamitis et al., 2014POTAMITIS, I.; RIGAKIS, I.; FYSARAKIS, K.: “The electronic McPhail trap”, Sensors, 14(12): 22285-22299, 2014, ISSN: 1424-8220, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/s141222285. ). Development of image databases of local diseases and pests for training AI models.
Expected Results
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Water consumption reduced by 30-40% in pilot areas and energy consumption reduced by 15-25% for pumping in selected areas.
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Nitrogen fertilizer use decreased by 10-3.0% without affecting yield.
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Validation of early warning systems for pests using smart traps.
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Development of local capacities in modeling, remote sensing, and machine learning.
Phase 3 (Medium/Long Term - 5-10 years): Introduction of advanced technologies
⌅Prioritized Actions
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Implementation of AI-powered autonomous irrigation systems that integrate sensor data, weather forecasts, satellite imagery, and growth models (Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ).
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Automation of fertigation, integrating water and fertilizers.
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Introduction of robotics and autonomous systems in pilot projects in cooperatives or larger-scale state-owned enterprises (Comparetti et al., 2025COMPARETTI, A.; FAGIOLINI, A.; FOUNTAS, S.; CASCIO, V.: “Field robots for precision agriculture”, AIMS Agriculture and Food, 10(4): 885-916, 2025, ISSN: 2471-2086, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2025046. ; Liu et al., 2025LIU, X.; ZHAO, Z.; REZAEIPANAH, A.: “Intelligent and automatic irrigation system based on internet of things using fuzzy control technology”, Scientific Reports, 15: 14577, 2025, ISSN: 2045-2322, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98137-2. ).
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Development of digital twins for strategic crops and integrated water resource management (Purcell & Neubauer, 2023PURCELL, W.; NEUBAUER, T.: “Digital Twins in Agriculture: A State-of-the-Art Review”, Smart Agricultural Technology, 3: 100094, 2023, ISSN: 2772-3755, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2022.100094. ).
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Implementation of conversational assistants for agricultural extension (Boscán & Boscán, 2025).
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Making AIoT technologies a common tool for increasing food sovereignty, optimizing water use, and improving the operation of agricultural machinery.
Expected results
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Rationalization of irrigation and fertigation with a 40-50% reduction in water consumption.
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Significant reduction of the energy and carbon footprint.
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Implementation of digital twins for the simulation and improvement of crop management.
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Positioning of Cuba as a regional leader in smart irrigation technologies.
Given the high costs, promoting collaborative business models, such as machinery cooperatives or "machinery-by-the-hour" rental services (Munz & Schuele, 2022MUNZ, J.; SCHUELE, H.: “Influencing the Success of Precision Farming Technology Adoption-A Model-Based Investigation of Economic Success Factors in Small-Scale Agriculture”, Agriculture, 12(11): 1773, 2022, ISSN: 2077-0472, DOI: http://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111773. ), can be a mechanism to overcome the economic and scale barriers that limit access to high-cost technologies, allowing the benefits of precision agriculture to reach small and medium-sized producers as well. The key will be adapting global technologies to local conditions, providing ongoing training for human resources, fostering sustained international collaboration, and developing business models that enable equitable access to technology. Therefore, the implementation of this strategy must be accompanied by a continuous training program for technicians and farmers, ensuring long-term sustainability.
Conclusions
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The integration of smart irrigation and precision mechanization is an unavoidable global trend for sustainable agriculture, offering water savings of 30-50%, herbicide reductions of up to 90%, and fertilizer reductions of 15-30%, with >95% accuracy in early pest detection. For Cuba, its adoption is a strategic necessity given the obsolescence of machinery (>80% over 30 years old) and the low efficiency of irrigation (70% surface irrigation with <50% efficiency).
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It is possible to initiate the digital transformation of Cuban agriculture without waiting for a complete infrastructure overhaul, through a gradual, three-phase approach: (1) low-cost technologies that operate with intermittent connectivity and are based on mobile telephony (sensors with local data logging, mobile applications without continuous internet access, use of the operator's phone as a navigation assistant); (2) hybrid systems; (3) continuous connectivity and robotics. This strategy enables progress toward precision agriculture, overcoming the limitations of rural connectivity in Cuba and the economic barriers that restrict access to high-cost technologies.
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Precision irrigation stands as a fundamental pillar of the transition, given water scarcity and losses due to the low efficiency of current systems. A model is proposed that begins with the installation of low-cost (≤US$44) soil moisture sensors in strategic crops (rice, corn, beans, vegetables, tobacco), initially operating in a semi-offline mode with on-site decision-making via mobile phone. This approach, validated in environments with limited connectivity, can achieve water consumption savings of 30-40% from the first phase, without requiring continuous internet infrastructure, and lays the groundwork for subsequent automation based on IoT and fuzzy logic control algorithms.
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The integration of these technologies, with an emphasis on smart irrigation and precision mechanization adapted to local conditions of limited connectivity and aging machinery, can be a decisive way to increase food sovereignty and the resilience of Cuban agriculture in the face of climate change, resource scarcity and the need for greater productive efficiency.