Introduction
⌅Bean cultivation (Phaseolus vulgaris) is considered a priority in the grain production program for import substitution carried out by the Cuban government (Cisneros et al., 2020CISNEROS, Z.; CUM, G.R.; HERRERA, P.J.; GONZÁLEZ, R.; RODRÍGUEZ, S.; GARCÍA, O.: “Efecto de los polímeros en la economía del agua.”, Ingeniería Agrícola, 10(1), 2020.).
It is the most significant legume in human consumption, constituting an indispensable nutritional supplement in the daily diet of more than 300 million people worldwide and an important element in agricultural production systems. Its grain is considered essential, not only for its nutritional and culinary properties, but also for its presence on all five continents and its value for the rural and social development of many economies (Magaña et al., 2015MAGAÑA, L.D.; GAUCÍN, S.D.; FLORES, L.D.: “Análisis sectorial y de la dinámica de los precios del frijol en México”, Compendium: Cuadernos de Economía y Administración, 2(3): 1-21, 2015, ISSN: 1390-9894.).
It is often grown in low-fertility soils, which reduces crop yields (Beaver et al., 2021BEAVER, J.S.; GONZÁLEZ-VÉLEZ, A.; LORENZO-VÁZQUEZ, G.; MACCHIAVELLI, R.; PORCH, T.G.; ESTEVEZ-DE-JENSEN, C.: “Performance of Mesoamerican bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) lines in an unfertilized oxisol”, Agronomía Mesoamericana, 32(3): 701-718, 2021, ISSN: 1659-1321, DOI: https://doi.org/10.15517/am.v32i3.44498.4. ). In Cuba, much of the production of this grain takes place during the dry season, which requires water to be supplied through irrigation.
Climate change is one of the most studied phenomena in the current era given the strong impact it can have on agriculture, mainly due to the occurrence of low rainfall (Ottaiano et al., 2021OTTAIANO, L.; DI MOLA, I.; CIRILLO, C.; COZZOLINO, E.; MORI, M.: “Yield performance and physiological response of a maize early hybrid grown in tunnel and open air under different water regimes”, Sustainability, 13(20): 11251, 2021, ISSN: 2071-1050, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011251. ).
Cuba, as a long and narrow archipelago, faces significant limitations in its water reserves, since rainfall is the main source of supply to guarantee the precious liquid required for the nation's development (Girón et al., 2015GIRÓN, I.; CORELL, M.; GALINDO, A.; TORRECILLAS, E.; MORALES, D.; DELL’AMICO, J.; TORRECILLAS, A.; MORENO, F.; MORIANA, A.: “Changes in the physiological response between leaves and fruits during a moderate water stress in table olive trees”, Agricultural Water Management, 148: 280-286, 2015, ISSN: 0378-3774, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.10.024 .).
Water stress is the physiological response of plants to water deficit in the soil, and it affects the balance between transpiration and water absorption (Girón et al., 2015GIRÓN, I.; CORELL, M.; GALINDO, A.; TORRECILLAS, E.; MORALES, D.; DELL’AMICO, J.; TORRECILLAS, A.; MORENO, F.; MORIANA, A.: “Changes in the physiological response between leaves and fruits during a moderate water stress in table olive trees”, Agricultural Water Management, 148: 280-286, 2015, ISSN: 0378-3774, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.10.024 .). Under conditions of water stress, crop growth decreases in proportion to the severity and magnitude of the stress condition (Rodríguez-Larramendi et al., 2021RODRÍGUEZ-LARRAMENDI, L.A.; SALAS-MARINA, M.; HERNÁNDEZ-GARCÍA, V.; CAMPOS-SALDAÑA, R.A.; CRUZ-MACÍAS, W.O.; CRUZ-MORALES, M.; GORDILLO-CURIEL, A.; GUEVARA-HERNÁNDEZ, F.: “Efecto fisiológico de la disponibilidad de agua y nitrógeno en plantas de guayaba”, Tropical and subtropical Agroecosystems, 24: 19, 2021, DOI: https://doi.org/10.56369/tsaes.3391. ).
Irrigation management determines when and how much to irrigate, based on crop water needs, soil characteristics, and climatic conditions. However, failure to use irrigation scheduling adjusted to climate, soil, and crop characteristics is one of the main causes of excessive irrigation water use (González-Cueto et al., 2020GONZÁLEZ-CUETO, O.; MONTAÑA-VALLADARES, A.; LÓPEZ-BRAVO, E.; SÁNCHEZ-VALLE, S.; ZAMBRANO-CASANOVA, D.E.; MACIAS-MARTÍNEZ, L.M.; HERRERA-SUÁREZ, M.: “Productividad del agua de riego en cultivos seleccionados de la región central de Cuba”, Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias, 29(1), 2020, ISSN: 2071-0054.).
The use of biostimulants to increase crop productivity has become established in conventional agricultural practice.
With the aim of making production systems more efficient, various agrochemical industries market different nutrient complexes containing micronutrients, amino acids, plant extracts, and/or phytohormones, which have been termed growth promoters or biostimulants (Winkler et al., 2017WINKLER, A.J.; DOMINGUEZ-NUÑEZ, J.A.; ARANAZ, I.; POZA-CARRIÓN, C.; RAMONELL, K.; SOMERVILLE, S.; BERROCAL-LOBO, M.: “Short-chain chitin oligomers: Promoters of plant growth”, Marine drugs, 15(2): 40, 2017, ISSN: 1660-3397, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/md15020040. ; Rouphael y Colla, 2020ROUPHAEL, Y.; COLLA, G.: “Biostimulants in agriculture”, Frontiers in plant science, 11: 40, 2020, ISSN: 1664-462X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00040. ).
The wide range of biostimulants offers a biotechnological alternative because it promotes plant growth and development, improves their metabolism, and protects them against biotic and abiotic stresses (Van Oosten et al., 2017VAN OOSTEN, M.J.; PEPE, O.; DE PASCALE, S.; SILLETTI, S.; MAGGIO, A.: “The role of biostimulants and bioeffectors as alleviators of abiotic stress in crop plants”, Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 4(1): 5, 2017, ISSN: 2196-5641, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186. ; Sanches et al., 2019SANCHES, M.; NOGUEIRA, M.A.; HUNGRIA, M.: “Microbial inoculants: reviewing the past, discussing the present and previewing an outstanding future for the use of beneficial bacteria in agriculture”, Amb Express, 9(1): 205, 2019, ISSN: 2191-0855.).
Azofert®-bean is an inoculant for legumes that contains native species of rhizobia capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, which is used by plants. Unlike other inoculants, it induces high concentrations of nodulation factors in the bacteria, which enhance their nodulation action and their efficiency in biological nitrogen fixation.
Quitomax® is a biostimulant based on a mixture of chitosan polymers, whose active ingredient has been attributed with properties such as antiperspirant Bittelli et al. (2001)BITTELLI, M.; FLURY, M.; CAMPBELL, G.S.; NICHOLS, E.J.: “Reduction of transpiration through foliar application of chitosan”, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 107(3): 167-175, 2001, ISSN: 0168-1923.; Iriti et al. (2009)IRITI, M.; PICCHI, V.; ROSSONI, M.; GOMARASCA, S.; LUDWIG, N.; GARGANO, M.; FAORO, F.: “Chitosan antitranspirant activity is due to abscisic acid-dependent stomatal closure”, Environmental and Experimental Botany, 66(3): 493-500, 2009, ISSN: 0098-8472, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.01.004. , responding with particular reference to abiotic stress conditions (Hidangmayum et al., 2019HIDANGMAYUM, A.; DWIVEDI, P.; KATIYAR, D.; HEMANTARANJAN, A.: “Application of chitosan on plant responses with special reference to abiotic stress”, Physiology and molecular biology of plants, 25(2): 313-326, 2019, ISSN: 0971-5894, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-018-0633-1. ).
Pectimorf® consists of a mixture of pectic oligosaccharides that has been shown to have a positive effect on the development of the root system of plants Posada-Pérez et al. (2016)POSADA-PÉREZ, L.; PADRÓN-MONTESINOS, Y.; GONZÁLEZ-OLMEDO, J.; RODRÍGUEZ-SÁNCHEZ, R.; BARBÓN-RODRIGUEZ, R.; NORMAN-MONTENEGRO, O.; RODRÍGUEZ-ESCRIBA, R.C.; GÓMEZ-KOSKY, R.: “Efecto del Pectimorf® en el enraizamiento y la aclimatización in vitro de brotes de papaya (Carica papaya L.) cultivar Maradol Roja”, Cultivos Tropicales, 37(3): 50-59, 2016, ISSN: 0258-5936, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1642.2642. ; Sáez-Cigarruista et al. (2024)SÁEZ-CIGARRUISTA, A.E.; MORALES-GUEVARA, D.; GORDÓN-MENDOZA, R.; JAÉN-VILLARREAL, J.E.; RAMOS-MANZANÉ, F.P.; FRANCO-BARRERA, J.: “Effect of a Pectic Oligosaccharide on the Root Development of Maize”, Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias, 33(2), 2024, ISSN: 2071-0054, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-019-0932-0. and has also been shown to have some potential for improving the water use efficiency of plants (Dell Amico et al., 2017DELL AMICO, J.; MORALES, D.; JEREZ, E.; RODRÍGUEZ, P.; ÁLVAREZ, I.; MARTÍN, R.; DÍAS, Y.: “Efecto de dos variantes de riego y aplicaciones foliares de Pectimorf® en el desarrollo del frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)”, Cultivos Tropicales, 38(3): 129-134, 2017, ISSN: 0258-5936.).
The water footprint Hoekstra et al. (2011)HOEKSTRA, A.Y.; CHAPAGAIN, A.K.; ALDAYA, M.M.; MEKONNEN, M.M.: The water footprint assessment manual: setting the global standard, [en línea], London/Washington, DC: Earthscan ed., 2011, Disponible en:https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual_2.pdf. , is an indicator that has recently gained importance as a result of the scarcity of fresh water for various activities and processes.
In agriculture, it is expressed as the volume of water used to produce a unit of product (m³ t⁻¹). Its analysis considers the amount of water applied through irrigation (blue), rainfall (green), and water used to dilute wastewater or fertilizers to levels tolerable by plants (gray).
It consists of three components: the blue water footprint (corresponding to the amount of water applied through irrigation), the green water footprint (amount of water used from rainfall), and the gray water footprint (which considers the fertilizer applied as a pollutant, mainly nitrogen).
Based on the above elements, this study was developed with the aim of estimating the water footprint of bean cultivation under different soil water supply conditions and evaluating the effect of using the aforementioned biostimulants.
Materials and Methods
⌅This study was conducted at the National Institute of Agricultural Sciences (INCA, 22º58′00″N and 82°09′00″W and 130 m above sea level). For this purpose, 18 concrete containers measuring 2.60 m long by 0.60 m wide (1.56 m2 ) containing leached red ferralitic soil from the province of Mayabeque according Hernández-Jiménez et al. (2019)HERNÁNDEZ-JIMÉNEZ, A.; PÉREZ-JIMÉNEZ, J.M.; BOSCH-INFANTE, D.; SPECK, N.C.: “La clasificación de suelos de Cuba: énfasis en la versión de 2015”, Cultivos tropicales, 40(1), 2019, ISSN: 0258-5936., an area that forms part of the Habana-Matanzas karst plain (Magaña et al., 2015MAGAÑA, L.D.; GAUCÍN, S.D.; FLORES, L.D.: “Análisis sectorial y de la dinámica de los precios del frijol en México”, Compendium: Cuadernos de Economía y Administración, 2(3): 1-21, 2015, ISSN: 1390-9894.).
In each container, Triunfo 70 bean seeds were sown in two rows with a spacing of 0.40 m between rows and 0.10 m between plants (52 plants per container).
The treatments used consisted of applying water corresponding to 100% of the ETc (crop evapotranspiration) in nine containers and 75% in another nine. Before sowing, the seeds in all containers were inoculated with Azofert®- bean (A), which has been considered part of the crop technology. In twelve of them (six from each irrigation variant), Pectimorf (P) was applied together with Azofert®-bean before sowing, and in six of these (three from each irrigation variant), Quitomax®(Q) was applied by foliar spraying at the beginning of flowering. This resulted in the following treatments: 100 A (control); 100 AP; 100 APQ; 75 A (control); 75 AP and 75 APQ.
Each treatment had three replicates (containers) arranged in continuous lines to facilitate irrigation, taking into account the characteristics of the installed system.
Irrigation was applied using an automated micro-sprinkler system, and water delivery was controlled by valves conveniently located on the irrigation sides of each treatment.
The pH and electrical conductivity values of the water applied to the crop during the experiment were 7.8 and 0.58 dS/m, respectively. For this type of soil (leached red ferralitic), classified as category I, there are no limitations on its use for irrigation. The pH reached is within the permissible range for irrigation (4.8 to 8.3) according to Cuban standard (NC 1048, 2014NC 1048: Calidad del agua para preservar el suelo. Especificaciones. Normas de Calidad del agua, Oficina Nacional de Normalización, La Habana, Cuba, 2014.)..
To avoid the effect of rainfall or dew, in the treatments with 75% of the ETc, a transparent polyethylene blanket was placed over the plants without making contact with them.
Irrigation consisted of replenishing the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) accumulated between each irrigation, which was carried out three times a week (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday).
Before sowing, 300 kg ha⁻¹of 23-12-17-5 fertilizer was applied. Other cultural practices were carried out as established in the Technical Guide for Bean Cultivation in Cuba (Alfonso, 2000ALFONSO, A.C.: Guía técnica para el cultivo del frijol en Cuba, Inst. Instituto de Investigaciones Hortícola, Liliana Dimitrova, Informe técnico, Qivican, Mayabeque, Cuba, 38 p., 2000.).
The reference evapotranspiration ETo (mm) and crop evapotranspiration ETc (mm) were obtained using the CropWat.8.0 program. This program was updated with a 34-year historical series of meteorological data (1990-2024) from the Tapaste weather station, which belongs to the National Institute of Meteorology and is located about 200 m from the experimental site. Monthly average values were used to calculate ETo and ETc.
Effective precipitation was determined according to the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service) method, as this is the method most recommended by the FAO. The crop coefficients (Kc, initial = 0.15, Kc, average = 1.10, and Kc, final = 0.65) proposed for the region (Allen et al., 2006ALLEN, R.G.; PEREIRA, L.S.; RAES, D.; SMITH, M.: “Evapotranspiración del cultivo: guías para la determinación de los requerimientos de agua de los cultivos”, Roma: FAO, 298(0), 2006.). were used.
To estimate the blue footprint, the amount of water applied through irrigation was considered; in the case of the green footprint, rainfall contributions were considered according Hoekstra et al. (2011)HOEKSTRA, A.Y.; CHAPAGAIN, A.K.; ALDAYA, M.M.; MEKONNEN, M.M.: The water footprint assessment manual: setting the global standard, [en línea], London/Washington, DC: Earthscan ed., 2011, Disponible en:https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual_2.pdf. ; and for the gray footprint, only the pollutant load of the fertilizer applied was considered.
The evaluations consisted of determining soil moisture using the gravimetric method, the relative water content before 7 solar hours according Turner (1981)TURNER, N.C.: “Techniques and experimental approaches for the measurement of plant water status”, Plant and soil, 58(1): 339-366, 1981, ISSN: 0032-079X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02180062. , the relative chlorophyll content with an SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) meter, for which 15 samples were taken per treatment, and the leaf water potential measured at 11 hours with a Scholander pressure chamber (9 replicates per treatment). These variables were determined before applying replacement irrigation. The length and diameter of the stems, the dry mass of the stems and leaves, the leaf area (18 plants per treatment), the number of pods per plant and grains per pod, and the mass of 100 grains were also measured to estimate yield. The results obtained were used to estimate the water footprint of each of the treatments used.
Data analysis was performed using the Statgraphics Plus 5 statistical package, and means were compared using Tukey's multiple range test. Sigma Plot 11 software was used to graph the data.
Results and Discussion
⌅When evaluating the behavior of plants under semi-controlled conditions treated with different biostimulants and different water supplies through irrigation (Table 1), differences were found between the treatments studied. It can be seen that the treatments to which the two biostimulants were applied generally showed higher values than those achieved by the plants in the control treatments. Similarly, when Quitomax® was added, the highest values were achieved in each of the soil water supply conditions. This response is associated with the better water status of the plants when this biostimulant was added, which has been attributed, among other properties, with improving plant growth.
When Pectimorf® was applied, improved plant growth was also observed, which is consistent with the positive effect of this biostimulant on root system development according Sáez-Cigarruista et al. (2024)SÁEZ-CIGARRUISTA, A.E.; MORALES-GUEVARA, D.; GORDÓN-MENDOZA, R.; JAÉN-VILLARREAL, J.E.; RAMOS-MANZANÉ, F.P.; FRANCO-BARRERA, J.: “Effect of a Pectic Oligosaccharide on the Root Development of Maize”, Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias, 33(2), 2024, ISSN: 2071-0054, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-019-0932-0. ,which promotes the absorption of water and nutrients available in the soil.
These results reaffirm those reported by other authors in studies conducted on grapevine cultivation (Vitis vinifera L.) when analyzing the morphological and physiological behavior of plants treated with chitosan under conditions of soil water deficit according Khalil y Badr Eldin (2021)KHALIL, H.A.; BADR ELDIN, R.: “Chitosan improves morphological and physiological attributes of grapevines under deficit irrigation conditions”, Journal of Horticultural Research, 29(1): 9-22, 2021, ISSN: 2300-5009, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/johr-2021-0003. , in the vegetative growth of Reutealis trisperma under water deficiency conditions Irawati et al. (2019)IRAWATI, E.; SASMITA, E.; SURYAWATI, A.: “Application of chitosan for vegetative growth of kemiri sunan plant in marginal land”, En: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Ed. IOP Publishing, vol. 250, p. 012089, 2019, ISBN: 1755-1315., as well as in Gliricidia sepium (Valverde-Otárola y Arias, 2020VALVERDE-OTÁROLA, J.C.; ARIAS, D.: “Efectos del estrés hídrico en crecimiento y desarrollo fisiológico de Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp”, Colombia forestal, 23(1): 20-34, 2020, ISSN: 0120-0739, DOI: https://doi.org/10.14483/2256201X.14786. ).
| Treatments | Stem length (cm) | Stem diameter (mm) | Stem dry weight (g) | Dry mass of leaves (g) | Leaf area (cm²) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 100 A (control) | 24.8 a | 4.31 b | 1.19 ab | 1.91 ab | 4336.76 b |
| 100AP | 21.4 ab | 4.86 ab | 1.27 ab | 2.05 a | 5279.31 ab |
| 100 APQ | 23.6 a | 4.92 a | 1.46 to | 2.16 a | 6450.91 a |
| 75 A (control) | 18.8 b | 4.33 b | 1.12 b | 1.59 b | 3429.36 b |
| 75 AP | 24.4 a | 4.57 | 1.26 ab | 1.94 ab | 4895.85 ab |
| 75 APQ | 24.0 a | 4.97 a | 1.38 ab | 2.11 a | 5167.84 ab |
| ESx | 1.28* | 0.26 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 701.66 |
Soil moisture (Figure 1), like growth, showed the highest values when chitosan was applied, followed by the treatment that received Pectimorf® at the time of sowing, but without statistical difference between them. The treatment to which Pectimorf®) was applied and the controls showed the same behavior, although the most noticeable response was between the plants in the control treatments and those that received the application of Quitomax®.
The differences between the levels of water supply applied to the soil are noteworthy, ensuring the presence of two very different treatments.
The unequal behavior between treatments with the same water supply level is due, first of all, to the ability of Pectimorf® to stimulate root system growth Sáez-Cigarruista et al. (2024)SÁEZ-CIGARRUISTA, A.E.; MORALES-GUEVARA, D.; GORDÓN-MENDOZA, R.; JAÉN-VILLARREAL, J.E.; RAMOS-MANZANÉ, F.P.; FRANCO-BARRERA, J.: “Effect of a Pectic Oligosaccharide on the Root Development of Maize”, Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias, 33(2), 2024, ISSN: 2071-0054, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-019-0932-0. , which allows it to absorb water from areas where unstimulated plants cannot reach it, or also through the lower transpiration of plants treated with chitosan according Bittelli et al. (2001)BITTELLI, M.; FLURY, M.; CAMPBELL, G.S.; NICHOLS, E.J.: “Reduction of transpiration through foliar application of chitosan”, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 107(3): 167-175, 2001, ISSN: 0168-1923. e Iriti et al. (2009)IRITI, M.; PICCHI, V.; ROSSONI, M.; GOMARASCA, S.; LUDWIG, N.; GARGANO, M.; FAORO, F.: “Chitosan antitranspirant activity is due to abscisic acid-dependent stomatal closure”, Environmental and Experimental Botany, 66(3): 493-500, 2009, ISSN: 0098-8472, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.01.004. , which leads to lower water absorption by plants.
The relative chlorophyll content (Figure 2) showed no significant differences between the treatments studied, demonstrating that the plants maintained a very similar nutritional status between the treatments used, particularly with regard to nitrogen, which ensures that this factor did not cause any variation in plant behavior.
Determinations of relative chlorophyll content are currently widely used to quickly and non-destructively determine the chlorophyll levels present in plant leaves. These measurements are closely related to their nutritional status, mainly with regard to nitrogen (Lopez-Bellido et al., 2004LOPEZ-BELLIDO, R.; SHEPHERD, C.; BARRACLOUGH, P.: “Predicting post-anthesis N requirements of bread wheat with a Minolta SPAD meter”, European Journal of Agronomy, 20(3): 313-320, 2004, ISSN: 1161-0301, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(03)00025-X. ).
Most of the nitrogen (N) in leaves is incorporated into chlorophyll. Therefore, quantifying the chlorophyll content provides an indirect measure of the N level in the leaves (Loayza et al., 2022LOAYZA, H.; CALDERÓN, A.; GUTIÉRREZ, R.O.; CÉSPEDES, E.; QUIROZ, R.: “Estimación de las concentraciones relativas de clorofila en foliolos de papa (Solanum tuberosum L.) Utilizando técnicas de reflectancia de la vegetación”, Ecología aplicada, 21(2): 91-101, 2022, ISSN: 1726-2216, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21704/rea.v21i2.1961. ).
This is a very important element for plant development. It is used to produce the amino acids that form part of proteins, enzymes, and chlorophylls. It is essential in cell constitution and is one of the basic components of DNA.
The relative water content represents the degree of water saturation of the plant under a given soil water supply condition. As is well known, it is closely related to processes such as transpiration and photosynthesis, especially transpiration, which determines the absorption of water and nutrients into the plant, promoting the other processes involved in plant physiology.
Figure 3 shows the behavior of this variable in each of the treatments used. It shows differences between the treatments with the best water supply and those that received only 75% of the ETc, as well as between the variants that were treated with the two biostimulants and those that were only treated with Pectimorf® and the controls.
This response coincides with what has been proposed about the possible effects of the chitosans used and their antitranspirant capacity by Berliana et al. (2020)BERLIANA, A.; KUSWANDARI, C.; RETMANA, B.; PUTRIKA, A.; PURBANINGSIH, S.: “Analysis of the potential application of chitosan to improve vegetative growth and reduce transpiration rate in Amaranthus hybridus”, En: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Ed. IOP Publishing, vol. 481, p. 012021, 2020, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/481/1/012021, ISSN: 1755-1315. and Jawad & Al-Shammari (2023)JAWAD, A.A.; AL-SHAMMARI, G.N.H.: “Effect of Anti-Transpiration Inhibitors Copper and Chitosan, Pomegranate Peel and Thyme Leaves Extracts and Storage Period on the Chemical Traits of Local Orange Fruits”, En: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Ed. IOP Publishing, vol. 1262, p. 042014, 2023, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1262/4/042014, ISSN: 1755-1315. which allowed the plants to maintain a better water status compared to the control.
Measuring water potential is a useful tool in irrigation planning, as it is directly associated with the water status of the plant. Knowing its critical threshold is a tool for determining when and how much to irrigate.
Figure 4 shows the behavior of water potentials measured in uncovered leaves of bean plants. It can be seen that the potential was lower in plants that were subjected to a water deficit in the soil, a condition that leads to a reduction in water potential in plant tissues (Avila et al., 2020AVILA, R.G.; MAGALHÃES, P.C.; DA SILVA, E.M.; GOMES JÚNIOR, C.C.; DE PAULA LANA, U.G.; DE ALVARENGA, A.A.; DE SOUZA, T.C.: “Silicon supplementation improves tolerance to water deficiency in sorghum plants by increasing root system growth and improving photosynthesis”, Silicon, 12(11): 2545-2554, 2020, ISSN: 1876-990X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-019-00349-5. ).
It can also be seen that the leaf water potential, like the relative water content, indicates differences in water status when the plants were treated with biostimulants, with marked superiority in those sprayed with Quitomax®.
This response is associated with its ability to elicit defense mechanisms in response to abiotic stress conditions. In this regard, it has been noted that treatment with chitosan stimulates the photosynthetic rate and stomatal closure through the synthesis of ABA according Hidangmayum et al. (2019)HIDANGMAYUM, A.; DWIVEDI, P.; KATIYAR, D.; HEMANTARANJAN, A.: “Application of chitosan on plant responses with special reference to abiotic stress”, Physiology and molecular biology of plants, 25(2): 313-326, 2019, ISSN: 0971-5894, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-018-0633-1. , a mechanism that controls water loss by the plant through transpiration (García-León et al., 2019GARCÍA-LEÓN, M.; CUYAS, L.; EL-MONEIM, D.A.; RODRIGUEZ, L.; BELDA-PALAZÓN, B.; SANCHEZ-QUANT, E.; FERNÁNDEZ, Y.; ROUX, B.; ZAMARREÑO, Á.M.; GARCÍA-MINA, J.M.: “Arabidopsis ALIX regulates stomatal aperture and turnover of abscisic acid receptors”, The Plant Cell, 31(10): 2411-2429, 2019, ISSN: 1532-298X.).
This observation may help to understand the above-mentioned antitranspirant capacity of chitosan found by other authors Bittelli et al. (2001)BITTELLI, M.; FLURY, M.; CAMPBELL, G.S.; NICHOLS, E.J.: “Reduction of transpiration through foliar application of chitosan”, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 107(3): 167-175, 2001, ISSN: 0168-1923.; Iriti et al. (2009)IRITI, M.; PICCHI, V.; ROSSONI, M.; GOMARASCA, S.; LUDWIG, N.; GARGANO, M.; FAORO, F.: “Chitosan antitranspirant activity is due to abscisic acid-dependent stomatal closure”, Environmental and Experimental Botany, 66(3): 493-500, 2009, ISSN: 0098-8472, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.01.004. ; Berliana et al. (2020)BERLIANA, A.; KUSWANDARI, C.; RETMANA, B.; PUTRIKA, A.; PURBANINGSIH, S.: “Analysis of the potential application of chitosan to improve vegetative growth and reduce transpiration rate in Amaranthus hybridus”, En: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Ed. IOP Publishing, vol. 481, p. 012021, 2020, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/481/1/012021, ISSN: 1755-1315.; Jawad y Al-Shammari (2023)JAWAD, A.A.; AL-SHAMMARI, G.N.H.: “Effect of Anti-Transpiration Inhibitors Copper and Chitosan, Pomegranate Peel and Thyme Leaves Extracts and Storage Period on the Chemical Traits of Local Orange Fruits”, En: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Ed. IOP Publishing, vol. 1262, p. 042014, 2023, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1262/4/042014, ISSN: 1755-1315..
The analysis of yield and its components reaffirms the results obtained in the variables evaluated above. Plants that received 100% and were under the effect of biostimulants showed higher yields than the rest of the treatments. This response is due to the water supply conditions to which they were exposed, together with the biostimulating effect that Pectimorf® and Quitomax® have on crops.
In other studies, conducted on this crop using these biostimulants, yield increases have been obtained compared to those achieved in plants that were not treated with them, demonstrating their potential to stimulate the mechanisms that contribute to yield formation (Dell Amico et al., 2017DELL AMICO, J.; MORALES, D.; JEREZ, E.; RODRÍGUEZ, P.; ÁLVAREZ, I.; MARTÍN, R.; DÍAS, Y.: “Efecto de dos variantes de riego y aplicaciones foliares de Pectimorf® en el desarrollo del frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)”, Cultivos Tropicales, 38(3): 129-134, 2017, ISSN: 0258-5936.; Morales-Guevara et al., 2017MORALES-GUEVARA, D.; DELL AMICO-RODRÍGUEZ, J.; JEREZ-MOMPIE, E.; RODRÍGUEZ-HERNÁNDEZ, P.; ÁLVAREZ-BELLO, I.; DÍAZ-HERNÁNDEZ, Y.; MARTÍN-MARTÍN, R.: “Efecto del Quitomax® en plantas de (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) sometidas a dos regímenes de riego. II. Variables Fisiológicas”, Cultivos Tropicales, 38(4): 92-101, 2017, ISSN: 0258-5936.; Romero-Félix et al., 2019ROMERO-FÉLIX, C.S.; LÓPEZ-CASTAÑEDA, C.; KOHASHI-SHIBATA, J.; MIRANDA-COLÍN, S.; AGUILAR-RINCON, V.H.; MARTÍNEZ-RUEDA, C.G.: “Changes in yield and its components in bean under irrigation and drought”, Revista mexicana de ciencias agrícolas, 10(2): 351-364, 2019, ISSN: 2007-0934, DOI: https://doi.org/10.29312/remexca.v10i2.1607. ).
In studies conducted on other crops under conditions of soil water deficiency, increases in yields and improvements in quality have also been found with the application of chitosan (Tawaha et al., 2020TAWAHA, R.M.; JAHAN, N.; ODAT, N.; RAMAMNEH, E.A.D.; ZAITOON, Y.M.; FANDI, K.; ALHAWATEMA, M.; RAUF, A.; WEDYAN, M.; SHALAT, M.; TAWAHA, I.K.; TURK, M.; KHANUM, S.: “Growth, yield and biochemical responses in barley to DAP and chitosan application under water stress”, Journal of Ecological Engineering, 21(6): 86-93, 2020, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1911/22998993/123251. ). In this regard, it has been suggested that this compound induces tolerance to water deficit because it causes regulations in the process of photosynthesis and the production of primary metabolites, osmoregulators, and antioxidants (Ávila et al., 2023ÁVILA, R.G.; MAGALHÃES, P.C.; VITORINO, L.C.; BESSA, L.A.; DE SOUZA, K.R.D.; QUEIROZ, R.B.; JAKELAITIS, A.; TEIXEIRA, M.B.: “Chitosan induces sorghum tolerance to water deficits by positively regulating photosynthesis and the production of primary metabolites, osmoregulators, and antioxidants”, Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 23(1): 1156-1172, 2023, ISSN: 0718-9508, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-022-01111-4.).
| Treatments | Pods per plant | Beans per pod | Beans per plant | Mass of 100 grains (g) | Estimated estimated (t ha-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 100 A (control) | 10.81 bc | 5.63 bc | 62.24 b | 18.56 ab | 1.65 b |
| 100 AP | 11.36 b | 5.77 ab | 65.13 b | 18.28 abc | 1.71 b |
| 100 APQ | 12.59 a | 6.04 a | 76.13 a | 18.59 a | 2.03 a |
| 75 A (control) | 9.45 d | 5.40 c | 52.00 c | 18.17 bc | 1.33 c |
| 75 AP | 9.78 cd | 5.66 bc | 59.26 bc | 17.08 d | 1.52 bc |
| 75 APQ | 11.08 bc | 5.82 ab | 63.00 b | 18.01 c | 1.62 b |
| ES | 0.46* | 0.14 | 3.14 | 0.14 | 0.12 |
As can be seen in the table, the blue water footprint accounts for the largest share, indicating that rainfall was insufficient to meet the crop's needs.
It should be noted that in treatments not covered with polyethylene sheets, effective rainfall contributed 25% of the water required by the crop.
It is also noteworthy that the application of Pectimorf® to the seed and the subsequent addition of Quitomax® by foliar spraying at the beginning of flowering contributed to an 18% reduction in the water footprint compared to the respective controls.
On the other hand, it was observed that the use of both Pectimorf® and Quitomax® improved water use efficiency, with the best results in the treatment that received a foliar application of chitosan, a product that has been shown, like other chitosan derivatives, the property of not only promoting yield but also causing a decrease in the transpiration rate Jafari et al. (2025)JAFARI, L.; SHAMEKH, M.R.; ABDOLLAHI, F.; HAMID, R.: “Elicitor potential of chitosan and its derivatives to enhancing greenhouse tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) performance under deficit irrigation conditions”, Scientia Horticulturae, 349: 114259, 2025, ISSN: 0304-4238, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2025.114259. , caused by the accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA), a compound that stimulates the partial closure of stomata (Hidangmayum et al., 2019HIDANGMAYUM, A.; DWIVEDI, P.; KATIYAR, D.; HEMANTARANJAN, A.: “Application of chitosan on plant responses with special reference to abiotic stress”, Physiology and molecular biology of plants, 25(2): 313-326, 2019, ISSN: 0971-5894, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-018-0633-1. ).
| Treatments | Irrigation allocation (m³ ha⁻¹) | Effective rainfall (m³ ha⁻¹) | Yield (t ha⁻¹) | Blue water footprint (m³ t⁻¹) | Green water footprint (m³ t⁻¹) | Gray water footprint (m³ t⁻¹ ) | Total water footprint (m³ t⁻¹) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 100 A (control) | 3413 | 1144 | 1.65 | 2068 | 693 | 44 | 2806 |
| 100 AP | 3413 | 1144 | 1.71 | 1996 | 669 | 42 | 2707 |
| 100 APQ | 3413 | 1144 | 2.03 | 1681 | 564 | 35 | 2280 |
| 75 A (control) | 2560 | 0 | 1.33 | 1925 | 0 | 54 | 1979 |
| 75 AP | 2560 | 0 | 1.52 | 1684 | 0 | 47 | 1731 |
| 75 APQ | 2560 | 0 | 1.62 | 1580 | 0 | 44 | 1624 |
Conclusions
⌅From the results obtained, it can be concluded that the application of both Pectimorf ® to the seed and Quitomax® as a foliar spray at the beginning of flowering promotes the growth and yield of the bean crop, as well as helping to maintain better water status in the plants.
The use of both products improved the efficiency of water use by the plants and contributed to reducing the water footprint by almost 20% compared to the control treatment.
Quitomax®, whose active ingredient is a mixture of chitosan polymers, has shown signs of exerting, like other commercial products containing chitosan, an antitranspirant action in plants, allowing them to maintain better water status in their tissues.