Introduction
⌅Pesticide application technology has experienced significant advances in recent decades, driven by the need to optimize agronomic efficiency and reduce environmental impact (Rodrigues, 2005RODRIGUES. G.J.: Critérios rastreáveis na aplicaçao de insetcida no controle do bicho mineiro do cafeeiro. Universidade Federal de Viçosa. Tese (Doutorado em Mecanizaçao Agrícola). Universidade Federal de Viçosa. Viçosa. MG. Brasil. 108 p. 2005.). However, critical challenges persist, such as inefficient pesticide application, which can result in inadequate deposition of the active ingredient-either through excess, increasing the risk of contamination, or through insufficient application, compromising pest control (Ferguson et al., 2018FERGUSON. C.J.; CHECHETTO. R.; ADKINS. S.W.; HEWITT. J.A.; CHAUHAN. S.B.; KRUGER. R.G.; O’DONNELL. C.C.: “Effect of spray droplet size on herbicide efficacy on four winter annual grasses”. Crop Protection. 112: 118-124. 2018. ISSN: 0261-2194.). This problem largely stems from an unbalanced approach that prioritizes chemical selection over application technique, despite the latter determining up to 70% of treatment success (Garcerá et al., 2017GARCERÁ. C.; FONTE. A.; MOLTÓ. E.; CHUECA. P.: “Sustainable use of pesticide applications in citrus: A support tool for volume rate adjustment”. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 14(7): 715. 2017. ISSN: 1660-4601.). In a global context demanding sustainability, with stricter regulations (e.g. European Union Directive 2019/782 (2019)EUROPEAN UNION DIRECTIVE 2019/782.: Sustainable use of pesticides. Inst. Official Journal of the European Union. 2019. and consumers demanding food with less residue, precision spraying has become indispensable. Here, droplet size emerges as a key factor: it directly influences leaf coverage, drift and product retention (Butler et al., 2020BUTLER. E.M.; TUCK. C.; MILLER. P.: “The effect of some adjuvants on sprays produced by agricultural flat fan nozzles”. Crop protection. 127: 104962. 2020. ISSN: 0261-2194.). Technologies such as sensor-assisted spraying and anti-drift nozzles (e.g. air-induced) seek to optimize this parameter, but their effectiveness depends on rigorous, evidence-based calibration (Grella et al., 2017GRELLA. M.; GALLART. M.; MARUCCO. P.; BALSARI. P.; GIL. E.: “Ground deposition and airborne spray drift assessment in vineyard and orchard: The influence of environmental variables and sprayer settings”. Sustainability. 9(5): 728. 2017. ISSN: 2071-1050.). Hydraulic nozzles, widely used in conventional agriculture (85% of the equipment, according to FAO (2021FAO: Guidelines for pesticide application techniques in agriculture. Inst. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. Italy. 2021.), are the central component that defines the droplet spectrum (Rodrigues, 2005RODRIGUES. G.J.: Critérios rastreáveis na aplicaçao de insetcida no controle do bicho mineiro do cafeeiro. Universidade Federal de Viçosa. Tese (Doutorado em Mecanizaçao Agrícola). Universidade Federal de Viçosa. Viçosa. MG. Brasil. 108 p. 2005.). Recent studies show that their performance is determined by: geometric characteristics (spray angle, type of induced turbulence); operating conditions (pressure, flow rate, broth formulation); environmental factors (wind, relative humidity) (Nuyttens et al., 2023NUYTTENS. D.; DE SCHAMPHELEIRE. M.; BAETENS. K.; SONCK. B.: “Effect of nozzle type and pressure on spray droplet characteristics”. Biosystems Engineering. 225: 1-12. 2023.). In particular, hollow cone nozzles-recommended for insecticides-generate a heterogeneous distribution profile, with greater deposition at the periphery of the jet (Cunha et al., 2023CUNHA. J.P.A.R.; ALVARENGA. C.B.; TEIXEIRA. M.M.: “Spray drift reduction with air induction nozzles: A review”. Agronomy. 13(2): 456. 2023.). However, their efficiency critically depends on maintaining optimal pressures (200-1000 kPa) and monitoring the coefficient of discharge (Cd), whose ideal value (0.611) ensures turbulent flow and uniformity (ISO 25358, 2023ISO 25358: Crop protection equipment - Droplet size measurement - Terminology and standardised methodologies. Inst. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Geneva. 2023.). This work evaluates the operational performance of hollow cone nozzles under different pressures, using traceable methodologies ASABE S572.1. (2023)ASABE S572.1.: Spray nozzle classification by droplet spectra. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE). 2023. to generate parameters that optimize: target deposition (≥30 impacts/cm² on leaflets, according to EPA criteria); drift minimization (<10% of droplets <150 µm in wind conditions ≤10 km/h); economic efficiency (up to 20% reduction in input use; data from Foquino et al. (2023)FOQUINO. L.E.S.; CUNHA. J.P.A.R.; FERREIRA. M.C.: “Optimization of pesticide application rates in soybean: A cost-benefit analysis”. Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 54(1): 78-89. 2023..The integration of these technical advances with sustainable agronomic practices not only improves productivity but also aligns agriculture with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 12 and 15), reducing risks for operators and ecosystems.
Materials and Methods
⌅The tests were conducted in the Agricultural Mechanization Laboratory of the Department of Agricultural Engineering at the Federal University of Viçosa, using a test bench built in accordance with ISO 5682/1 (1986)ISO 5682/1: Equipment for crop protection - Spraying equipment - Part 2. Inst. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Geneva. Geneva. 5 p. 1986., designed to determine the flow rate and volumetric distribution of nozzles (Rodrigues et al., 2004RODRIGUES. G.J.; TEIXEIRA. M.M.; FERREIRA. L.R.; FERNANDES. H.C.; HERRERA. P.M.: “Avaliação de um conjunto de bicos para uso em uma barra para aplicação de herbicidas em lavouras de café em formação”. Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias. 13(2): 17-21. 2004. ISSN: 1010-2760.). Hydraulic pressure was generated by a piston pump with a maximum flow rate of 20 L min-1 and a maximum pressure of 500 kPa, driven by a 220 V electric motor with a power equivalent to 2.2 kW. The bench is equipped with a pressure regulation and fluid filtration system. Pressure was measured with a calibrated Famagras pressure gauge, with a nominal capacity of 1578.6 kPa and a resolution of 19.73 kPa (Rodrigues et al., 2004RODRIGUES. G.J.; TEIXEIRA. M.M.; FERREIRA. L.R.; FERNANDES. H.C.; HERRERA. P.M.: “Avaliação de um conjunto de bicos para uso em uma barra para aplicação de herbicidas em lavouras de café em formação”. Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias. 13(2): 17-21. 2004. ISSN: 1010-2760.). Calibration was performed using a standard mass system to obtain the relationship between indicated and actual pressure. The system consisted of a PH-80 hydraulic pump and an Enerpac RCH-120 hollow-piston hydraulic cylinder. This system was mounted on a reaction structure equipped with a metal rod to load masses in increments of approximately 10 kg. Three loads of approximately 205 kg were applied to verify the repeatability of the readings. This allowed the calibration curve of the pressure gauge under study to be obtained. The calibrated pressure gauge was mounted on the test bench, where the spray nozzles were tested. Conical ceramic nozzles, model JA-1 (1 mm diameter) and JA-2 (1.3 mm diameter), produced by Jacto, were used. These nozzles are recommended for operating at pressures of 414 to 1448 kPa in hydropneumatic sprayers. The flow characteristics of the nozzles to be evaluated are shown in Table 1.
| Pressure (kPa) | Nominal flow rate (L min-1) | |
|---|---|---|
| Nozzle JA-1 | Nozzle JA-2 | |
| 414 | 0.32 | 0.64 |
| 620 | 0.38 | 0.76 |
| 1034 | 0.50 | 1.00 |
| 1448 | 0.55 | 1.10 |
For the flow study, 14 nozzles from the JA-1 series and 14 from the JA-2 series were randomly selected and individually tested. The nozzles were placed on the test bench and fitted with a plastic tube to direct the sprayed liquid into a 2000 mL collection vessel with an accuracy of 10 mL. Tests were conducted at four pressures: the minimum and maximum recommended by the manufacturer. and two intermediate pressures: 414, 620, 1034, and 1448 kPa. Each measurement lasted 60 seconds. with five repetitions. Statistical analysis of the data consisted of determining measurement accuracy using the Student t test for a 95% confidence interval. Equation 1 was used to determine the flow measurement error. The maximum allowable error for this type of study was 5%. For the calculated error below the established limit. the average was accepted as representative of the sample (Sánchez. 1988SÁNCHEZ. D.P.R.: Estadística modelos y métodos. Ed. Alianza. Editorial AS. Madrid. España. 402 p. 1988.).
where:
L = absolute error. L;
t = Student's t-score;
SD = standard deviation;
n = number of samples.
From the absolute error determination. the percentage error relative to the mean was calculated. A table was created using Excel to perform the calculations. Another study was conducted to determine the coefficient of discharge (CD). This coefficient utilizes all the factors that characterize the discharge dynamics of a given nozzle (Rodrigues et al. 2004RODRIGUES. G.J.; TEIXEIRA. M.M.; FERREIRA. L.R.; FERNANDES. H.C.; HERRERA. P.M.: “Avaliação de um conjunto de bicos para uso em uma barra para aplicação de herbicidas em lavouras de café em formação”. Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias. 13(2): 17-21. 2004. ISSN: 1010-2760.). The velocity of the liquid as it passes through the nozzle orifice is critical to the spraying process.
It can be calculated using Equation 2 (Srivastava et al. 1993SRIVASTAVA. A.K.; GOERING. C.E.; ROHRBACH. R.P.; BUCKMASTER. D.R.: Engineering principles of agricultural machines. Inst. American society of agricultural engineers (ASAE) St. Joseph. Mich. USA. 265-324 p. publisher: American society of agricultural engineers St. Joseph. Mich. 1993.).
where:
vi = liquid velocity. m s-1;
Cv = velocity coefficient;
Δp = total pressure. Pa;
n = coefficient that depends on the flow regime and the type of emitter; for turbulent flow. it is equal to 0.5;
ρ 1 = liquid density. kg m-3.
The flow rate provided by the nozzle is another important factor and can be determined by Equation 3 (Srivastava et al. 1993SRIVASTAVA. A.K.; GOERING. C.E.; ROHRBACH. R.P.; BUCKMASTER. D.R.: Engineering principles of agricultural machines. Inst. American society of agricultural engineers (ASAE) St. Joseph. Mich. USA. 265-324 p. publisher: American society of agricultural engineers St. Joseph. Mich. 1993.).
where:
Q = nozzle flow rate, m3 s-1;
v = jet velocity, m s-1;
CA = area coefficient;
A = nozzle orifice área, m2.
The area coefficient accounts for the contraction of the liquid as it passes through the orifice. Combining equations 2 and 3 . the nozzle flow can be written according to equation 4 (Srivastava et al. 1993SRIVASTAVA. A.K.; GOERING. C.E.; ROHRBACH. R.P.; BUCKMASTER. D.R.: Engineering principles of agricultural machines. Inst. American society of agricultural engineers (ASAE) St. Joseph. Mich. USA. 265-324 p. publisher: American society of agricultural engineers St. Joseph. Mich. 1993.).
The flow coefficient can be calculated using Equation 5 . which ultimately allows the flow rate to be determined according to Equation 6 .
The coefficient of discharge depends on the size and design of the orifice and represents the relationship between the actual and theoretical possible flow. Therefore. for a given nozzle. the liquid flow delivered by the nozzle is related to the square root of the pressure. The slope of this line will be CDA/. from which the coefficient of discharge (CD) can be determined. The value of the coefficient of discharge (CD) should be close to 0.611. a value used for orifices with turbulent flow (Srivastava et al. 1993SRIVASTAVA. A.K.; GOERING. C.E.; ROHRBACH. R.P.; BUCKMASTER. D.R.: Engineering principles of agricultural machines. Inst. American society of agricultural engineers (ASAE) St. Joseph. Mich. USA. 265-324 p. publisher: American society of agricultural engineers St. Joseph. Mich. 1993.).
Results and Discussion
⌅Flow measurements were made with an error of less than 1% in all cases. falling below the maximum limit of 5% proposed by Sánchez (1988)SÁNCHEZ. D.P.R.: Estadística modelos y métodos. Ed. Alianza. Editorial AS. Madrid. España. 402 p. 1988.. With these values. the calculated average flow rate can be considered representative of the sample. Nozzle JA-1 had an average flow rate of 0.297 L min-1 at a pressure of 414 kPa, reaching 0.574 L min-1 at a pressure of 1447 kPa (Figure 1), similar to those proposed by the manufacturer. Nozzle JA-2 had an average flow rate of 0.575 L min-1 at the lowest pressure and 1.146 L min-1 at the highest. JA-2 had twice the flow rate of JA-1 at the same pressure. a characteristic that will allow different flow rates to be obtained when calibrating the equipment. The comparative analysis between the flow rates obtained and those provided by the manufacturer was performed using the L&O statistical method (Leite & Oliveira. 2002LEITE. H.G.; OLIVEIRA. F.T.: “Statistical procedure to test the identity of analytical methods”. Communications in Soil Science and plant Analysis. New York. 7 e 8: 1-23. 2002.). Another analysis was performed using the Fisher "F" test and the behavior of the residues analyzed using the "T" test. A correlation coefficient analysis was also performed. With these three analyses. it can be considered that the values obtained experimentally are statistically similar to those provided by the manufacturer with a 1% significance level. The experimental results confirm that the flow rates measured in both nozzles (JA-1 and JA-2) do not present statistically significant differences (p > 0.01) with respect to the values provided by the manufacturer. which validates the reliability of the technical specifications under controlled conditions. This finding is consistent with previous studies according to ISO 5682-1 (2022)ISO 5682-1: Métodos de prueba para pulverizadores. Inst. nternational Organization for Standardization (ISO). Geneva. Genova. 2022. on the calibration of hydraulic nozzles.
Figure 2 shows the flow curves versus the square root of pressure for the experimental data. It can be seen that the performance of each nozzle is represented by the fitting equation used to determine the discharge coefficient.
It can be seen that the performance of each nozzle is represented by the fitting equation used to determine the coefficient of discharge. The coefficient of discharge calculated from the values in Figure 2 was 0.232 for nozzle JA-1 and 0.286 for nozzle JA-2. These averages are considerably lower than the 0.611 accepted for turbulent flow orifices. Srivastava et al. (1993)SRIVASTAVA. A.K.; GOERING. C.E.; ROHRBACH. R.P.; BUCKMASTER. D.R.: Engineering principles of agricultural machines. Inst. American society of agricultural engineers (ASAE) St. Joseph. Mich. USA. 265-324 p. publisher: American society of agricultural engineers St. Joseph. Mich. 1993. obtained a CD equivalent to 0.274 for nozzles with a diameter of 2.39 mm. The CD values (0.233 for JA-1 and 0.286 for JA-2) are significantly lower than the theoretical value of 0.611 for turbulent flow according to Srivastava et al. (1993)SRIVASTAVA. A.K.; GOERING. C.E.; ROHRBACH. R.P.; BUCKMASTER. D.R.: Engineering principles of agricultural machines. Inst. American society of agricultural engineers (ASAE) St. Joseph. Mich. USA. 265-324 p. publisher: American society of agricultural engineers St. Joseph. Mich. 1993.. which suggests: energy losses due to orifice geometric design or cavitation effects and practical implications to achieve target flow rates. higher pressures are required. increasing the risk of drift (≥15% of droplets <150 µm at >1000 kPa. according to ASABE S572.1. (2023)ASABE S572.1.: Spray nozzle classification by droplet spectra. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE). 2023..
Conclusions
⌅-
The experimental results confirm that the flow rates measured in both nozzles (JA-1 and JA-2) do not present statistically significant differences (p > 0.01) with respect to the values provided by the manufacturer. which validates the reliability of the technical specifications under controlled conditions.
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The Cd values (0.233 for JA-1 and 0.286 for JA-2) are significantly lower than the theoretical value of 0.611 for turbulent flow. implying energy losses due to orifice geometric design or cavitation effects and practical implications for achieving flow rates. since higher pressures are required. increasing the risk of drift.
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Specific calibration curves for JA-1/JA-2 nozzles were determined. These curves. which are absent in the technical literature. serve as criteria for nozzle selection and as a basis for optimizing hydropneumatic sprayers by adjusting nozzle pressure.