Introduction
⌅Soils constitute the fundamental basis for sustainable agricultural development, the maintenance of essential ecosystem functions, and food security. However, alterations leading to soil degradation represent a growing global threat, driven by unsustainable management practices, inappropriate land use, and extreme weather events, all linked to socioeconomic and governance factors (FAO, 2015FAO: Agricultura familiar en América Latina y el Caribe: objetivos de desarrollo sostenible: tierra y suelos., [en línea], 2015, Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-goals/overview/fao-and-post2015/land-and-soils/es/.). This degradation, which is advancing at alarming rates, compromises soil fertility and productivity, jeopardizing both the stability of ecosystems and the global food supply. In this context, agri-food systems face the challenge of operating within the limits of finite resources, which requires a comprehensive approach that balances productive efficiency with environmental, economic, and social sustainability. To achieve this, it is imperative to transcend purely productive objectives and incorporate improvements in value chains, along with practices that promote ecosystem conservation (FAO, 2016FAO: Boletín Informativo FAO en Uruguay. Noticias, Proyectos, Talleres, Eventos, Estadísticas, Publicaciones, [en línea], no. N° 23, enero-marzo, 13pp C0030s p., 2016, Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/3/a-c0330s.pdf.). In response to these challenges, the ecoVALOR project "Incorporation of multiple environmental considerations and their economic implications in the management of forests, landscapes and productive sectors in Cuba" is aligned with the Economic and Social Development Strategy to 2030 of the PCC-Cuba, 2021PCC-CUBA: Conceptualización del modelo económico y social cubano de desarrollo socialista. Lineamientos de la política económica y social del partido y la revolución para el período 2021-2026, Inst. Partico Comunista de Cuba, Informe político, La Habana, Cuba, 2021.). Its implementation includes economic incentives to achieve financial sustainability in the use of natural resources, combat pollution, mitigate soil degradation, and adapt to climate change. At its intervention sites, the project has incorporated technical equipment specifically designed to halt or significantly reduce soil degradation processes. Central to achieving these objectives is the validation of agricultural technologies, a process recognized as fundamental to promoting sustainable innovations in the sector (FAO & OPS, 2017FAO; OPS: Panorama de la Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional en América Latina y el Caribe., Inst. FAO, Santiago de Chile, Chile, 2017.; Martínez et al., 2017MARTÍNEZ, F.; GARCÍA, C.; GÓMEZ, L.A.; AGUILAR, Y.; MARTÍNEZ-VIERA, R.; CASTELLANOS, N.; RIVEROL, M.: “Manejo sostenible de suelos en la agricultura cubana”, Agroecología, 12(1): 25-38, 2017, ISSN: 1989-4686.)..This validation requires rigorous assessments that guarantee not only productive efficiency, but also environmental viability and adaptation to specific local contexts, as highlighted by Synergy, 2006SINERGIA: Producción respetuosa en viticultura-Impactos ambientales en agricultura, Inst. Sinergia Life 03 ENV/E/000085 del Gobierno de La Rioja, Proy. Life Sinerg, Gobierno de La Rioja, España, 1-11 p., 2006.; Bell & Morse, 2018BELL, S.; MORSE, S.: “Sustainable Indicators Past and Present. what next?”, Sustainability, 10(5), 2018, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051688.). The main objective of this work, based on an established baseline, is to provide the necessary elements to ensure land sustainability at the intervention sites. This will be achieved through integrated agricultural management based on technologies implemented by the ecoVALOR project under diverse soil and climate conditions.
Materials and Methods
⌅EcoVALOR Project Intervention Sites
⌅The ecoVALOR Project encompasses, at the national level, five provinces, 30 municipalities, 15 protected areas, 10 soil, water, and forest polygons, seven forested areas, three fishing centers, four tourism centers, and two hydrocarbon companies. Based on this diversity of actors and ecosystems, five intervention sites were established (Table 1), aimed at validating sustainable agricultural practices with a conservationist approach and compatible with environmental preservation and the maintenance of ecosystem services.
| Province | Municipality | Management form | Name | Extension (ha) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Matanzas | Unión de Reyes | CCSF | Antonio López | 400.00 |
| Jagüey Grande | CCS | Israel León | 22.50 | |
| Las Tunas | Puerto Padre | CCSF | Mártires de Bolivia | 46.00 |
| Jesús Menéndez | UEB | Adolfo Villamar | 86.10 | |
| Holguín | Banes | UBPC | Antonio Maceo | 112.00 |
| 666.60 | ||||
Main agricultural technologies distributed by the ecoVALOR Project
⌅The project intervention sites were equipped with various technological resources for the implementation of agricultural practices with conservationist criteria. Table 2 shows the main technical resources provided by the ecoVALOR Project.
| Province | Municipality | Management form | Name | Technical means delivered (*) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Matanzas | Unión de Reyes | CCSF | Antonio Lopez | Tractor |
| Cart | ||||
| Seeder | ||||
| Jagüey Grande | CCS | Israel León | Tractor | |
| Cart | ||||
| Sprayer | ||||
| Las Tunas | Puerto Padre | CCSF | Mártires de Bolivia | Tractor |
| Cart | ||||
| Seeder | ||||
| Jesús Menéndez | UEB | Adolfo Villamar | Tractor | |
| Cart | ||||
| Seeder | ||||
| Holguín | Banes | UBPC | Antonio Maceo | Tractor |
| Cart |
Results and Discussion
⌅The main objectives of validating incorporated technologies are to provide information on the sustainability they could produce when implemented and to understand the impact on certain soil properties when managed systematically. In this sense Mosquera-Montoya (2021), suggests that a technology should be more effective than those currently implemented and, where possible, reduce production costs, that is, be efficient from an economic and environmental perspective.
The impact of machinery on the environment depends on multiple factors, influencing, among others, soil degradation, a drop in its productive capacity, and water and air pollution, as reported by Lal & Dtewart, 1990LAL, R.; DTEWART, B.A.: Soil degradation, Ed. Springer - Verlag, New York INC, Soil Sci ed., vol. II, New York, USA, 1990.; Ríos-Hernández, 2024RÍOS-HERNÁNDEZ, A.: “Medidas para reducir los impactos de la mecanización agrícola sobre el medio ambiente”, Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias, 33(3), 2024, ISSN: 2071-0054.). These environmental damages can be reduced if the appropriate machinery and technologies are selected. Various authors Lal (2001LAL, R.: “Soil degradation by erosion”, Land degradation & development, 12(6): 519-539, 2001, ISSN: 1085-3278.; 2015)LAL, R.: “Sequestering carbon and increasing productivity by conservation agriculture”, Journal of soil and water conservation, 70(3): 55A-62A, 2015, ISSN: 0022-4561.; Hobbs et al. (2019)HOBBS, P.; GUPTA, R.; JAT, R.K.; MALIK, R.: “Conservation agriculture in the Indogangetic plains of India: Past, present and future”, Experimental Agriculture, 55(2): 339-357, 2019, ISSN: 0014-4797.; Kassam et al. (2020)KASSAM, A.; DERPSCH, R.; FRIEDRICH, T.: “Development of conservation agriculture systems globally”, En: Advances in conservation agriculture, Ed. Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, Burleigh Dodds Chapter 2 ed., vol. Volume 1-Systems and Science; Kassam, A., Cambridge, UK, pp. 31-86, 2020. have demonstrated that minimal or reduced tillage and the incorporation of green manures are environmentally friendly practices that maintain ecosystem services. They increase soil organic matter levels and biological activity, improve soil stability, and reduce fuel consumption.
As proposed by Gugino (2009)GUGINO, B.K.: “Use of an integrative soil health test for evaluation of soil management impacts”, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 24(3): 214-224, 2009, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170509990068., inherent soil quality is related to its composition and natural properties, influenced by soil formation factors and processes in the absence of human impact. These same authors explain that dynamic soil quality is related to those properties that change as a result of soil use and management over the human timescale. As Ossa-Ossa (2016)OSSA-OSSA, C.A.: Teoría general de sistemas: conceptos y aplicaciones, [en línea], Ed. Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Pereira, Colombia, Colección de textos académicos, 2016, ISBN: 958-722-228-8, Disponible en: http://repositorio.utp.edu.co/dspace/handle/11059/7424., explains, an agricultural production system is defined as a set of interconnected elements, where "the whole behaves in an organized, coherent manner, as an integrated whole that cannot be deduced from its parts."
Aramburú (2001)ARAMBURÚ, C.E.: Métodos y técnicas de investigación social, Ed. Universidad del Pacífico, Gerencia social. Diseño, monitoreo y evaluación de proyectos sociales ed., Lima-Perú, 2001, ISBN: 9972-603-32-6., pointed out the importance of establishing a baseline or starting point for an activity that can have a positive or negative impact on the environment and of being able to control or monitor negative or positive impacts, which allows for determining the risk of soil degradation or decline in quality.
The baseline was identified from information sources consulted or evaluated, following the methodological structure and criteria defined by Arcia-Porrúa et al. (2024)ARCIA-PORRÚA, J.; RODRÍGUEZ-GONZÁLEZ, A.; HERRERA-PUEBLA, J.; GARCÍA-RAMOS, C.; CARABALLOSO-JONSON, A.: “Valoración de algunos servicios ecosistémicos en sitios de intervención del Proyecto ecoVALOR en Cuba”, Ingeniería Agrícola, 14(4): cu-id, 2024, ISSN: 2227-8761.. In all cases, the data recorded correspond to the period prior to the implementation of the technologies provided by the project. Table 3 shows the information considered as the baseline for each of the intervention sites. This information is grouped into value categories, as established by Arcia-Porrúa et al. (2024)ARCIA-PORRÚA, J.; RODRÍGUEZ-GONZÁLEZ, A.; HERRERA-PUEBLA, J.; GARCÍA-RAMOS, C.; CARABALLOSO-JONSON, A.: “Valoración de algunos servicios ecosistémicos en sitios de intervención del Proyecto ecoVALOR en Cuba”, Ingeniería Agrícola, 14(4): cu-id, 2024, ISSN: 2227-8761..
Table 4 shows some changes in soil properties, such as initial moisture content, bulk density, porosity, and drainable porosity, in the Antonio Lopez Production Unit, in the Unión de Reyes Municipality. These changes are slightly increased with the use of conservation technology. This unit is home to black Rendzina soil with a slope that ranges from undulating to steeply undulating, which favors erosion when conservation management practices are not used. Given the shallow effective soil depth, slope, and some rocky terrain that characterize the areas, the tractor-cart system requires conservation technology, which also includes the use of organic matter with the tractor-cart system. In the case of the Israel León Production Unit, part of the Jagüey Grande Municipality, the soil is Ferralitic Red, but with a significant percentage of rockiness (10.0-25.0%), which limits the use of soil preparation practices with vertical soil management. Other conservation-oriented practices are being implemented, for example, the use of the tractor-cart combination provided to this unit allowed for the application of organic matter at a rate of 15 t/ha. This, combined with the tractor-sprayer combination, allowed for the application of biostimulants, biopesticides, etc. Table 5 shows the changes in some soil properties of the aforementioned Production Unit. In the case of the Province of La Tunas, the Mártires de Bolivia Units, belonging to the Puerto Padre Municipality, have a Red Rendzina soil, with little effective depth (25-50 cm), the tractor-seeder set, taking advantage of the working organs of this implement, carried out vertical preparation work, this practice brought benefits mainly in the apparent density and porosity of the soil, this Unit also benefited from the delivery of the tractor-cart set, aimed at the application of compost (20 t/ha). These practices, as a whole, brought benefits in general terms to the soil characteristics shown in Table 6. In this Province (Las Tunas), the Adolfo Villamar Production Unit, located in the Jesús Menéndez Municipality, was also an intervention site, which has a Dark Plastic soil. The tractor-seeder combination, taking advantage of the working organs of this implement, carried out vertical soil preparation tasks. This practice brought benefits, among which are shown in Table 7, highlighting the decrease in apparent density, increase in porosity and drainable porosity. These results allow for better use in the managed areas, which are located on two center pivot machines with efficient water management for irrigation.
| INDICATORS | MUNICIPALITIES | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unión de Reyes | Jagüey Grande | Puerto Padre | Jesús Menéndez | Banes | ||
| NAME PRODUCTIVE FORM | ||||||
| Antonio López | Israel León | Mártires de Bolivia | Adolfo Villamar | Antonio Maceo | ||
| Geographical/edaphic | Relief (%) | Ondulado-Fuertemento ondulado (4.0-16.0) | Llano-Muy llano (< 1.0) | Llano-Muy llano (< 1.0) | Llano-Muy llano (< 1.0) | Casi llano (1.0-2.0) |
| Degree of erosion (%) | Pérdida del horizonte "A" desde 27 | Pérdida del horizonte "A" < 25 | Pérdida del horizonte "A" < 25 | Pérdida del horizonte "A" < 25 | Pérdida del horiznte "A" entre el 25 - 75 | |
| Effective soil depth (cm) | < 25 | 150-90 | 50-25 | 150-90 | 50-25 | |
| Stonyness (%) | 0.2-4.0 | 0.1-02 | 0.2-4.0 | < 2.0 | 0.2-4.0 | |
| Rockiness (%) | 2.0-10.0 | 10.0 -25.0 | 2.0-10.0 | < 2.0 | 2.0-10.0 | |
| Farm Management (cropping system, water) | Management of agricultural inputs | En ocasiones (Aplicación esporádica y no aplican productos químicos) | Alto (Manejo de agro insumos) | Combinado (Uso de agroinsumo y productos químicos) | Combinado (Uso de agroinsumo y productos químicos) | Combinado (Uso de agroinsumo y productos químicos) |
| Soil management systems | Tradicional (Preparación con maquinaria agrícola, sin aplicación de materia orgánica) | Tradicional (Labores de manejo del suelo por medios mecánicos y tracción animal y aplicación de materia orgánica) | Tradicional (Labores de manejo del suelo por medios mecánicos y tracción animal y aplicación de materia orgánica) | Tradicional (Labores de manejo del suelo por medios mecánicos y tracción animal y aplicación de materia orgánica) | Tradicional (Labores de manejo del suelo por medios mecánicos y tracción animal y aplicación de materia orgánica) | |
| Average agricultural yields (% of potential) | < 30 | 30-50 | 30-50 | 50-70 | 30-50 | |
| Texture (%) | De 20 a 40 arcilla y > 20 limo | De 20 a 40 arcilla y > 20 limo | De 20 a 40 arcilla y > 20 limo | > 40 arcilla ó > 60 limo | De 20 a 40 arcilla y > 20 limo | |
| Physical, Hydrophysical, Chemical and Biological Properties | Porosity (%) | 30 -50 | 30 -50 | 30 -50 | 50 - 60 | 30 -50 |
| Drainable porosity | 10-5 | 20-10 | 20-10 | 10-5 | 20-10 | |
| Apparent density (g/cm -3 ) | 1.50-1.65 | 1.35-1.50 | 1.35-1.50 | 1.20-1.35 | 1.35-1.50 | |
| pH in water | 6.4 - 5.5 ó 7.8 -8.4 | 6.5-7.4 | 6.4 - 5.5 ó 7.8 -8.4 | 6.4 - 5.5 ó 7.8 -8.4 | 6.4 - 5.5 ó 7.8 -8.4 | |
| Electrical conductivity (dS m -1 a 25º C) | ˃ 0.98 | ˃ 0.98 | ˃ 0.98 | 0.98 -1.71 | ˃ 0.98 | |
| Organic carbon content (%) | 2.0 - 1.0 | 4.0 - 2.0 | 6.0 - 4.1 | 4.0 - 2.0 | 2.0 - 1.0 | |
| Intervention site | Sampling depth | Initial humidity | D.A | Porosity | Humidity under tension | Drainable porosity | pH | CE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (gr/gr) | (gr cm-3) | (%) | (100 cm (cm3 cm-3) | (%) | (agua) | (dSm-1) | ||
| Unión de Reyes Productor: Juan E. Ramírez | Conventional Technology | |||||||
| 0-10 | 29.40 | 1.08 | 38.50 | 0.24 | 10.25 | 7.50 | 0.01 | |
| 10-20 | 28.50 | 1.02 | 37.70 | 0.20 | 10.18 | 7.80 | 0.01 | |
| 20-30 | ||||||||
| Conservation Technology | ||||||||
| 0-10 | 32.50 | 0.99 | 39.50 | 0.30 | 10.30 | 7.60 | 0.01 | |
| 10-20 | 30.80 | 0.98 | 38.30 | 0.25 | 10.28 | 7.70 | 0.01 | |
| 20-30 | ||||||||
| Intervention site | Sampling depth | Initial humidity | D.A | Porosity | Humidity under tension | Drainable porosity | pH | CE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (gr/gr) | (gr cm-3) | (%) | (100 cm (cm3 cm-3) | (%) | (agua) | (dSm-1) | ||
| Jagüey Grande finca: Los Olivo | Conventional Technology | |||||||
| 0-10 | 37.9 | 1.20 | 44.2 | 0.34 | 10.5 | 7.0 | 0.8 | |
| 10-20 | 37.5 | 1.16 | 47.4 | 0.42 | 5.2 | 7.2 | 0.8 | |
| 20-30 | 33.4 | 1.15 | 44.8 | 0.39 | 8.0 | 7.1 | 0.8 | |
| Conservation Technology | ||||||||
| 0-10 | 35.6 | 0.86 | 60.7 | 0.38 | 22.6 | 7.1 | 0.79 | |
| 10-20 | 36.7 | 1.03 | 55.5 | 0.44 | 11.4 | 7.1 | 0.79 | |
| 20-30 | 33.3 | 1.00 | 54.7 | 0.38 | 16.6 | 7.2 | 0.78 | |
| Intervention site | Sampling depth | Initial humidity | D.A | Porosity | Humidity under tension | Drainable porosity | pH | CE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (gr/gr) | (gr cm-3) | (%) | (100 cm (cm3 cm-3) | (%) | (agua) | (dSm-1) | ||
| Puerto Padre CCS Mártires de Bolivia. Productor: Dainer de la Cruz | Conventional Technology | |||||||
| 0-10 | 25.1 | 0.98 | 56.9 | 0.46 | 11.1 | 7.8 | 0.1 | |
| 10-20 | 32.2 | 0.74 | 42.4 | 0.37 | 12.2 | 8.1 | 0.1 | |
| 20-30 | 33.7 | 0.73 | 55.6 | 0.37 | 18.5 | 8.0 | 0.1 | |
| Conservation Technology | ||||||||
| 0-10 | 30.9 | 0.95 | 58.7 | 0.31 | 11.2 | 7.9 | 0.1 | |
| 10-20 | 18.7 | 0.71 | 48.8 | 0.19 | 24.4 | 8.1 | 0.1 | |
| 20-30 | 35.9 | 0.71 | 60.1 | 0.36 | 18.7 | 8.0 | 0.1 | |
| Intervention site | Sampling depth | Initial humidity | D.A | Porosity | Humidity under tension | Drainable porosity | pH | CE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (gr/gr) | (gr cm-3) | (%) | (100 cm (cm3 cm-3) | (%) | (agua) | (dSm-1) | ||
| Jesús Menéndez UEB Productor: Adolfo Villamar | Conventional Technology | |||||||
| 0-10 | 33.3 | 1.27 | 62.7 | 0.57 | 6.0 | 8.7 | 0.1 | |
| 10-20 | 31.9 | 1.23 | 61.7 | 0.57 | 5.0 | 8.7 | 0.1 | |
| 20-30 | 39.1 | 1.09 | 66.5 | 0.59 | 7.5 | 8.6 | 0.1 | |
| Conservation Technology | ||||||||
| 0-10 | 46.7 | 1.10 | 65.5 | 0.61 | 5.8 | 8.4 | 0.1 | |
| 10-20 | 47.4 | 1.09 | 65.6 | 0.60 | 5.2 | 8.4 | 0.1 | |
| 20-30 | 41.7 | 1.09 | 64.9 | 0.61 | 7.0 | 8.3 | 0.1 | |
In the Province of Holguín, the Antonio Maceo UBPC, located in the Municipality of Banes, was evaluated. The soil present is Red Rendiza with a shallow effective depth (50-25 cm). The tractor-seeder set, which took advantage of the working organs of this implement, carried out vertical preparation work. This practice brought benefits mainly observed in favorable changes in apparent density with an average decrease greater than 2% and an average increase in porosity of 1%, as shown in Table 8.
Coinciding with our results, Idowu et al. (2009)IDOWU, O.; VAN ES, H.; ABAWI, G.; WOLFE, D.; SCHINDELBECK, R.; MOEBIUS-CLUNE, B.; GUGINO, B.: “Use of an integrative soil health test for evaluation of soil management impacts”, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 24(3): 214-224, 2009, ISSN: 1742-1713, DOI: 10.1017/S1742170509990068., recognize that excessive mechanization, the absence of crop rotations and lack of addition of organic matter produce a decrease in some soil properties, with the consequent decrease in the productive potential of the soils, for this reason, soil health and its maintenance have received increasing attention of farmers. Conservation practices not only regenerate soils, but also strengthen communities, balance ecosystems, and generate more resilient rural economies. Integrating social, environmental, and economic indicators is key to assessing their success and scaling up their adoption (Burbano-Orjuela, 2017BURBANO-ORJUELA, H.: “La calidad y salud del suelo influyen sobre la naturaleza y la sociedad”, Tendencias. Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Administrativas, 18(1): 118-126, 2017, ISSN: 0124-8693.).
| Intervention site | Sampling depth | Initial humidity | D.A | Porosity | Humidity under tension | Drainable porosity | pH | CE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (gr/gr) | (gr cm-3) | (%) | (100 cm (cm3 cm-3) | (%) | (agua) | (dSm-1) | ||
| UBPC Antonio Maceo, Municipio Banes | Conventional Technology | |||||||
| 0-10 | 33.0 | 0.96 | 61.7 | 0.45 | 16.9 | 8.3 | 0.2 | |
| 10-20 | 32.5 | 1.01 | 60.1 | 0.57 | 13.3 | 8.2 | 0.1 | |
| 20-30 | 35.1 | 0.83 | 56.8 | 0.53 | 13.5 | 8.2 | 0.1 | |
| Conservation Technology | ||||||||
| 0-10 | 37.4 | 0.80 | 63.4 | 0.47 | 13.5 | 8.1 | 0.1 | |
| 10-20 | 40.4 | 0.70 | 60.2 | 0.44 | 15.6 | 7.9 | 0.1 | |
| 20-30 | 40.9 | 0.95 | 65.9 | 0.53 | 16.0 | 8.7 | 0,1 | |
Among the social impacts of conservation-based practices, according to Prodi et al., (2001)PARODI, C.; FIGUEROA, C.; ARAMBURÚ, C.E.; VÁSQUEZ, E.: “Los desafíos de la lucha contra la pobreza extrema en el Perú”, En: Los desafíos de la lucha contra la pobreza extrema en el Perú, pp. 289-289, 2001. and (Pretty et al., 2006PRETTY, J.N.; NOBLE, A.D.; BOSSIO, D.; DIXON, J.; HINE, R.E.; PENNING DE VRIES, F.W.; MORISON, J.I.: “Resource-conserving agriculture increases yields in developing countries”, 2006, ISSN: 0013-936X.), is the strengthening of local organizations for sustainable resource management. Among the economic indicators, Lal (2015)LAL, R.: “Sequestering carbon and increasing productivity by conservation agriculture”, Journal of soil and water conservation, 70(3): 55A-62A, 2015, ISSN: 0022-4561., suggests lower expenditures on synthetic inputs (fertilizers, pesticides) by leveraging local resources.
As an example, and based on the criteria of the producers benefiting from the ecoVALOR Project, in the Province of Holguín, in the Production Unit located in the Municipality of Banes, the environmental impact was observed. With the application of organic waste and ecological soil management of more than 30 t/ha, the benefits were primarily observed from an economic perspective, with an increase in yields of between 20 and 25% for all the crops grown there (tomatoes, chili peppers, etc.).
Reduction in production costs. With the incorporation of the technological resources provided by the Project, costs have been reduced. For example, corn threshing, which previously cost $27,600/t, is now reduced by $16,100/t. Furthermore, soil preparation, which previously (using traditional techniques) cost $3,500.00/ha, has now achieved savings of $2,300.00/ha with the incorporation of new technologies.
Conclusions
⌅-
With the implementation of various technological resources, it is evident that sustainable agricultural practices positively influence some soil indicators (decreased bulk density and increased porosity) at intervention sites in Matanzas Province.
-
At the intervention sites in Las Tunas Province, soil porosity and structural stability increased.
-
At the intervention sites in Holguín, bulk density decreased and porosity increased.
-
Through a multidisciplinary approach (environmental, economic, and social), the Production Unit located in the Banes Municipality (Holguín Province) achieved yield increases of more than 30 t/ha, reduced corn threshing costs by approximately $11,500/t, and achieved savings of $2,300/ha in soil preparation.