INTRODUCTION
⌅Irrigation of citrus trees (Citrus spp.) contributes to obtaining profitable harvests since it determines their productive precocity, controls vegetative development, flowering, fruit setting and fruit quality (Albrigo et al., 2019ALBRIGO, L.G.; STELINSKI, L.L.; TIMMER, L.W.: Citrus, no. solc. SB369 .A572 2019, ser. Crop production science in horticulture, no. ser. 29, Ed. CABI, Second ed., Boston, MA, 314 p., 2019, ISBN: 978-1-84593-815-4.).The central pivot machine is a technique that has been used worldwide for the irrigation of citrus trees for more than 20 years. Several authors made references to its wide use in South Africa Zanini et al. (1998)ZANINI, J.R.; PAVANI, L.C.; DA SILVA, J.A.A.: Irrigação em Citros, Ed. FUNEP, Jaboticabal, 35 p., 1998., in the northeast of Brazil Coelho et al. (2006)COELHO, E.; COELHO FILHO, M.; SIMÕES, W.; COELHO, Y.: “Irrigation for citrus in the northeast of Brazil”, Laranja, 27(2): 297-320, 2006. and in Zimbabwe Albani & Palentini (2016)ALBANI, L.; PALENTINI, L.: Country Case Study. Working to Zero Hunger: Zimbabwe, [en línea], Ed. CESVI, Bergamo, Italy, 14 p., 2016, Disponible en: https://www.cesvi.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Country-Case-Study-Zimbabwe.pdf.. In Cuba its use is still incipient; at 2016, a pilot experience was implemented in areas of the “Jiguaní” Agricultural Enterprise, where a machine in use for the irrigation of 32 ha of citrus trees was adapted Fernández-Hung et al. (2019)FERNÁNDEZ-HUNG, K.; FUENTES-ELÍAS, I.; FAJARDO-NÚÑEZ, D.; MARTÍNEZ-MATAMOROS, J.; ROSABAL-MOJENA, R.; ÁLVAREZ-ARÉVALO, E.; GUEVARA-PÉREZ, D.: “Manejo del riego con máquina de pivote central en plantaciones jóvenes de cítricos de la Empresa Agropecuaria “Jiguaní””, CitriFrut, 36(2): 26-38, 2019, ISSN: 1607-5072. and a new one to foment another 32 ha, was recently installed.
A guide from Valmont Irrigation (2019)VALMONT IRRIGATION: Orchard Planning, [en línea], Ed. Valmont Industries, Inc., Valley, NE 68064, USA, 2019, Disponible en: https://az276020.vo.msecnd.net/valmontproduction/docs/librariesprovider120/soluciones-para-cultivos-y-granjas/sp1039-0819-orchard-planning_brochure_low_spreads.pdf?sfvrsn=d21a1139_4. refers to two possible locations of spray nozzles for irrigation of citrus groves with center pivot machines: one above and one below the foliage. For phytosanitary reasons and to minimize the reduction in application efficiency due to losses due to evaporation and wind drift, it is preferred to apply irrigation below the tree canopy, just above the root system, in strips of soil representing concentric circular rings (Figure 1). These particularities mark the differences with respect to the irrigation of other full coverage crops and determine the calculation of the technical-operational parameters of the irrigation machine configured for citrus trees.
A previous study highlighted that the mathematical expressions of the technical-operational parameters that were conceived for the central pivots that irrigate with full coverage, when applied to those configured for citrus irrigation, do not offer sufficiently precise results that contribute to the efficient use of water (Fernández-Hung et al., 2022FERNÁNDEZ-HUNG, K.; VARGAS-RODRÍGUEZ, P.; CUETO-RODRÍGUEZ, J.R.; BROWN-MANRIQUE, O.N.: “Capacity of center pivot systems and emitter discharges for citrus irrigation. A case study”, INGE CUC, 18(1): 105-113, 2022, ISSN: 2382-4700, DOI: https://doi.org/10.17981/ingecuc.18.1.2022.09, Disponible en: https://revistascientificas.cuc.edu.co/ingecuc/article/view/4123.). The particular arrangement of the spray nozzles also has an impact on the head loss and the distribution of the pressure head that occurs in the main pipe of the irrigation machine. With this, the calculation of the hydraulic variables that determine, for example, the selection of pumping equipment and the nozzles themselves, results in poor reliability.
To calculate the head loss in the main pipe of the central pivots, three different approaches have been used: Adding the partial head losses, by stepwise method Kincaid & Heermann (1970)KINCAID, D.C.; HEERMANN, D.F.: “Pressure Distribution on a Center-Pivot Sprinkler Irrigation System”, Transactions of the ASAE, 13(5): 556-0558, St. Joseph, MI, 1970, ISSN: 0001-2351, DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38662, Disponible en: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=38662&t=3.; through a friction factor, which can be determined from a theoretical analytical solution Chu & Moe (1972)CHU, S.T.; MOE, D.L.: “Hydraulics of a Center Pivot System”, Transactions of the ASAE, 15(5): 894-0896, St. Joseph, MI, 1972, ISSN: 0001-2351, DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38034, Disponible en: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=38034&t=3.; Seyedzadeh et al. (2021)SEYEDZADEH, A.; PANAHI, A.; MAROUFPOOR, E.; LIAGHAT, A.: “Analytical Head Loss Equation of Center-Pivot Irrigation System”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 147(7): 06021004, 2021, ISSN: 1943-4774, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001588, Disponible en: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%29IR.1943-4774.0001588., through a complex numerical solution Reddy & Apolayo (1988)REDDY, J.M.; APOLAYO, H.: “Friction Correction Factor For Center‐Pivot Irrigation Systems”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 114(1): 183-185, 1988, ISSN: 0733-9437, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1988)114:1(183), Disponible en: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-9437%281988%29114%3A1%28183%29.; Scaloppi & Allen (1993)SCALOPPI, E.J.; ALLEN, R.G.: “Hydraulics of Center‐Pivot Laterals”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 119(3): 554-567, 1993, ISSN: 0733-9437, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1993)119:3(554), Disponible en: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-9437%281993%29119%3A3%28554%29.; Anwar, (2000)ANWAR, A.A.: “Correction Factors for Center Pivots with End Guns”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 126(2): 113-118, 2000, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2000)126:2(113); Valiantzas & Dercas (2005)VALIANTZAS, J.D.; DERCAS, N.: “Hydraulic Analysis of Multidiameter Center-Pivot Sprinkler Laterals”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 131(2): 137-146, 2005, ISSN: 0733-9437, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2005)131:2(137), Disponible en: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-9437%282005%29131%3A2%28137%29.; Tabuada (2014)TABUADA, M.A.: “Friction Head Loss in Center-Pivot Laterals with Single Diameter and Multidiameter”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 140(10): 04014033, 2014, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000755, Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000755. or as a result of a non-linear regression analysis Keller & Bliesner (1990)KELLER, J.; BLIESNER, R.D.: Sprinkle and trickle irrigation, Ed. Springer Science and Business Media, New York, USA, 652 p., 1990, ISBN: 978-1-4757-1425-8.. The determination of the pressure head along the main pipe is linked to the calculation of the head loss. In the first and third approaches to calculate the head loss, the pressure head at the outlets is obtained directly (Kincaid y Heermann, 1970KINCAID, D.C.; HEERMANN, D.F.: “Pressure Distribution on a Center-Pivot Sprinkler Irrigation System”, Transactions of the ASAE, 13(5): 556-0558, St. Joseph, MI, 1970, ISSN: 0001-2351, DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38662, Disponible en: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=38662&t=3.; Baptista et al., 2019aBAPTISTA, V.B. da S.; COLOMBO, A.; TEIXEIRA, T.H.B.; SANTOS, P.A.B. dos; DIOTTO, A.V.; FARIA, L.C.: “Influência do canhão final na distribuição de pressão e vazão da linha lateral de um pivô central”, IRRIGA, 1(1): 8-17, 2019a, ISSN: 1808-8546, DOI: https://doi.org/10.15809/irriga.2019v1n1p8-17, Disponible en: https://revistas.fca.unesp.br/index.php/irriga/article/view/3901.; 2019bBAPTISTA, V.B. da S.; CÓRCOLES, J.I.; COLOMBO, A.; MORENO, M.Á.: “Feasibility of the Use of Variable Speed Drives in Center Pivot Systems Installed in Plots with Variable Topography”, Water, 11(10): 2192, 2019b, ISSN: 2073-4441, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102192, Disponible en: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/11/10/2192.; 2020BAPTISTA, V.B. da S.; COLOMBO, A.; BARBOSA, B.D.S.; ALVARENGA, L.A.; DIOTTO, A.V.: “Pressure Distribution on Center Pivot Lateral Lines: Analytical Models Compared to EPANET 2.0”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 146(8): 04020025, 2020, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001488).Some researchers proposed its calculation based on the head loss distribution factor Chu & Moe (1972)CHU, S.T.; MOE, D.L.: “Hydraulics of a Center Pivot System”, Transactions of the ASAE, 15(5): 894-0896, St. Joseph, MI, 1972, ISSN: 0001-2351, DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38034, Disponible en: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=38034&t=3.; Keller & Bliesner (1990)KELLER, J.; BLIESNER, R.D.: Sprinkle and trickle irrigation, Ed. Springer Science and Business Media, New York, USA, 652 p., 1990, ISBN: 978-1-4757-1425-8.; Scaloppi & Allen (1993)SCALOPPI, E.J.; ALLEN, R.G.: “Hydraulics of Center‐Pivot Laterals”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 119(3): 554-567, 1993, ISSN: 0733-9437, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1993)119:3(554), Disponible en: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-9437%281993%29119%3A3%28554%29.; Anwar (2000)ANWAR, A.A.: “Correction Factors for Center Pivots with End Guns”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 126(2): 113-118, 2000, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2000)126:2(113); Seyedzadeh et al. (2021)SEYEDZADEH, A.; PANAHI, A.; MAROUFPOOR, E.; LIAGHAT, A.: “Analytical Head Loss Equation of Center-Pivot Irrigation System”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 147(7): 06021004, 2021, ISSN: 1943-4774, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001588, Disponible en: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%29IR.1943-4774.0001588.,and others proposed it included in the calculation of the load loss itself (Valiantzas y Dercas, 2005VALIANTZAS, J.D.; DERCAS, N.: “Hydraulic Analysis of Multidiameter Center-Pivot Sprinkler Laterals”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 131(2): 137-146, 2005, ISSN: 0733-9437, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2005)131:2(137), Disponible en: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-9437%282005%29131%3A2%28137%29.; Tabuada, 2014TABUADA, M.A.: “Friction Head Loss in Center-Pivot Laterals with Single Diameter and Multidiameter”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 140(10): 04014033, 2014, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000755, Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000755.).
The methods for calculating head loss and pressure head, using friction and distribution factors, consider that irrigation is carried out at complete coverage and, therefore, do not represent the configuration adopted by the central pivots for irrigation of citrus. The method that calculates the pressure loss and pressure load section by section is excessively laborious and the one that uses hydraulic simulation models requires advanced knowledge in using the software. Although these last methods represent any configuration of the irrigation machine and are the most accurate, their adoption in practice is very limited. Therefore, the objective of the present study is to develop two simple and sufficiently precise mathematical expressions to calculate the pressure loss and pressure load distribution in the center pivots configured for citrus irrigation, through regression analysis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
⌅Determination of head loss
⌅The head loss on the lateral was determined from the so-called friction factor, F, proposed by Chu & Moe, (1972CHU, S.T.; MOE, D.L.: “Hydraulics of a Center Pivot System”, Transactions of the ASAE, 15(5): 894-0896, St. Joseph, MI, 1972, ISSN: 0001-2351, DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38034, Disponible en: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=38034&t=3.), with the following generic expression:
where ho is the pressure load on the pivot (m); hR, the pressure head at the final end of the lateral and hm, the fictitious head loss with the flow through to end (m).
The term (ho - hR ), which represents the head loss on the lateral, is obtained from (1 F=(ho−hR)hm ) for which the variable F is required, which was determined through a regression analysis with the STATGRAPHICS statistical package. For this, using Buckingham's P theorem, the variables involved in the analysis were defined and organized in the following dimensionless numbers P: P1 = F; P2 = N y P3 = Q (n D)-1. The functional relationship between these terms is expressed mathematically as:
where from:
where N is the number of emitters (dimensionless); Q, the inlet flow rate to the machine (L s-1); D, inner diameter of the lateral (mm) and n, the water kinematic viscosity at 20°C (10-6 m2 s-1).
The values of the hydraulic variables ho, hR and hm, were obtained using the numerical hydraulic simulation model implemented in the EPANET 2 software. For this, a type 32 factorial design was conceived; that is, two factors with three levels each Melo et al. (2020)MELO, O.O.; LÓPEZ, L.A.; MELO, S.E.: Diseño de Experimentos. Métodos y Aplicaciones., Ed. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Segunda ed., Bogotá, 675 p., 2020, ISBN: 978-958-701-815-8., as presented in the following table:
Factors | Low level | Medium level | Nivel alto |
---|---|---|---|
N | 64 | 132 | 270 |
Qν D | 6.2 ∙ 104 | 1.2 ∙ 105 | 1.8 ∙ 105 |
Figure 2 shows, as an example, one of the three numerical simulation models of irrigation pivots that correspond to each level of the factorial design: low, medium and high, as well as its equivalent model with total flow to final end.
These models represent three machines with lengths R = 200, 404 and 818 m, resulting from the number of emitters N = 64, 132 and 270, respectively, and their analysis diagram can be seen in Figure 3.
Determination of pressure load distribution
⌅The pressure head distribution along the main pipe was calculated using the distribution factor, H, which was also proposed by Chu & Moe, (1972)CHU, S.T.; MOE, D.L.: “Hydraulics of a Center Pivot System”, Transactions of the ASAE, 15(5): 894-0896, St. Joseph, MI, 1972, ISSN: 0001-2351, DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38034, Disponible en: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=38034&t=3.:
where hr, is the pressure head at the points on the main pipe, located at distances r from the pivot (m) and (ho - h R) is the same parameter as in (1 F=(ho−hR)hm ).
The expression for calculating H was obtained through a regression analysis between the dimensionless parameters P3 = Q (n D)-1, P4 = H y P5 = r/R, aided by the STATGRAPHICS statistical package, according to the following functional relationship:
where r is the distance from the pivot to each discharge point (m) and R, the length of the machine (m). The variables ho, hR and hm were obtained from the same three previous numerical simulation models.
Validation of the proposed equations
⌅To validate the proposed equations, the mean absolute percentage error, MAPE, of the hydraulic head along the main pipe was established as an indicator, which consolidates the pressure head and head loss values. It was calculated as follows:
where Yi is the measured pressure head value, ˆY , the estimated value and n is the number of measurements. If the resulting value of MAPE ≤ 1…2%, then the proposed expressions are sufficiently precise to model the head loss and pressure head that occurs in the main pipe of the irrigation machine.
The measurements were carried out on the central pivot machine that was recently installed in areas of the “Jiguaní” Agricultural Enterprise, planned for irrigation of 32 hectares of citrus trees that will be foment (Figure 4).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
⌅Head loss
⌅Table 2 shows the values of F calculated from the hydraulic variables ho, hR and hm, which were obtained with the numerical simulation model implemented in EPANET 2 software. It is observed that, in the range analyzed (64 ≤ N ≤ 270), F is only a function of N and not of the dimensionless number Q (n D)-1. This normally occurs in pressurized flow through pipes, with highs Reynolds numbers, Re. Keep in mind that Q (n D)-1 ∝ Re.
N | Q (n D)-1 | ||
---|---|---|---|
6.2 ∙ 104 | 1.2 ∙ 105 | 1.8 ∙ 105 | |
64 | 0.553 | 0.553 | 0.553 |
132 | 0.550 | 0.550 | 0.550 |
270 | 0.549 | 0.549 | 0.549 |
To explain the functional relationship between F and N, the mathematical model shown below was adopted:
With the following fundamental statistical parameters:
-
Correlation coefficient, R: 0.98
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Coefficient of determination, R2: 96.1%
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Standard error of the estimate: 0.000367
-
Mean absolute error: 0.000299
The R2 statistic indicates that the model as fitted explains 96.1% of the variability in F. The correlation coefficient equals 0.98, indicating a relatively strong relationship between the variables. The standard error of the estimate shows the standard deviation of the residuals to be 0.000367. This value can be used to construct prediction limits for new observations.
In the proposed model, it is observed that when N ⟶ ∞, F = 0.548. This is precisely the value of F for the velocity exponent equal to 1.852 for Hazen-Williams’s head losses equation, shown in Figure 5 as a horizontal line (F Ch&M). In the figure itself, it can be seen that the new values of F are greater than F Ch&M = 0.548 and lower than those obtained by Keller & Bliesner (1990)KELLER, J.; BLIESNER, R.D.: Sprinkle and trickle irrigation, Ed. Springer Science and Business Media, New York, USA, 652 p., 1990, ISBN: 978-1-4757-1425-8. (F K&B), in curvilinear way.
Note also that with a wide variation of N there is a small change in F. Therefore, following the same reasoning as (Keller & Bliesner 1990KELLER, J.; BLIESNER, R.D.: Sprinkle and trickle irrigation, Ed. Springer Science and Business Media, New York, USA, 652 p., 1990, ISBN: 978-1-4757-1425-8.), who proposed a constant value of FK&B = 0.555, alternatively to (7 F=0.548+0.322N ) one can use the value of F = 0.551 with a margin of error of ± 0.3%. If the value of FK&B = 0.555 were used, a maximum error of 1% would be made.
Thus, for center pivots configured for citrus irrigation, using the Hazen-Williams equation, given that the normal flow conditions in the equipment are within their validity limits, the head loss equation, HF, in the lateral is the following:
If it is considered that F = 0.551 and C = 120 … 130, then:
where F is the friction factor (dimensionless); C, Hazen-Williams’s roughness coefficient; R, the total length (m); Q e, the effective capacity machine (L s-1); D, the inner diameter of the pipe (mm) and DZ, the maximum position head difference, positive or negative (m).
Pressure load distribution
⌅Table 3 shows a selection of 1,407 H values calculated from the hydraulic variables ho, hR and hr, which were also obtained with the numerical hydraulic simulation model implemented in EPANET 2 software.
N | Q (n D)-1 | r/R | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.00 | 0.25 | 0.50 | 0.75 | 1.00 | ||
64 | 6.2 ∙ 104 | 1.000 | 0.564 | 0.223 | 0.039 | 0.000 |
1.2 ∙ 105 | 1.000 | 0.563 | 0.222 | 0.039 | 0.000 | |
1.8 ∙ 105 | 1.000 | 0.563 | 0.222 | 0.039 | 0.000 | |
132 | 6.2 ∙ 104 | 1.000 | 0.562 | 0.221 | 0.038 | 0.000 |
1.2 ∙ 105 | 1.000 | 0.562 | 0.221 | 0.038 | 0.000 | |
1.8 ∙ 105 | 1.000 | 0.562 | 0.221 | 0.038 | 0.000 | |
270 | 6.2 ∙ 104 | 1.000 | 0.562 | 0.220 | 0.037 | 0.000 |
1.2 ∙ 105 | 1.000 | 0.562 | 0.220 | 0.037 | 0.000 | |
1.8 ∙ 105 | 1.000 | 0.562 | 0.220 | 0.037 | 0.000 |
The multiple regression analysis that was carried out to define the influence of the three independent variables, r/R , N y Q (n D)-1 on the dependent parameter H, resulted that the last two do not have a statistically significant impact, for a confidence level equal to or greater than 95%. As a consequence, for the range of values analyzed, H is only dependent on r/R .
Thus, from a polynomial regression analysis, which involves r/R and powers of r/R , it was determined that the maximum appropriate order of the adjustment polynomial is 6; However, based on a regression model selection analysis, an order 5 model was adopted that has the same adjusted coefficient of determination, R2adj, up to the thousandth significant figure, where H is a function of the variables, rR , (rR)2 , …, (rR)5 . Thus, for a confidence level equal to or greater than 95%, the resulting best-fit polynomial is:
With the following fundamental statistical parameters:
-
Correlation coefficient, R: 1.0000
-
Coefficient of determination, R2: 99.9997%
-
Adjusted coefficient of determination, R2adj: 99.9997%
-
Standard error of the estimate: 0.000516
Rewriting (9 HF=9⋅105R Qe1.852D4.87±ΔZ ), it turns out:
It is obtained that (11 H=1−1.82[(rR)−0.62(rR)3+0.17(rR)5] ) is similar to the following form of the equation proposed by Chu & Moe, (1972)CHU, S.T.; MOE, D.L.: “Hydraulics of a Center Pivot System”, Transactions of the ASAE, 15(5): 894-0896, St. Joseph, MI, 1972, ISSN: 0001-2351, DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38034, Disponible en: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=38034&t=3., with small discrepancies in coefficients of independent variables:
The maximum difference between results of both equations is 15 mm, which represents -5.2% error.
Finally, for center pivot machines configured for citrus irrigation, the equation of pressure head, hr, at each outlet on the main pipe, located a distance r from the pivot, is as follows:
Validation of proposed equations
⌅In Figure 6, it can be seen that the hydraulic head measurement points are located on both sides of the curve that represent their calculated values. The dispersion of these points in relation to the curve is attributed to the differences that may exist in the roughness conditions (Hazen-Williams C-coefficient and unforeseen local head loss) and, fundamentally, to appreciation of the measurement instrument (glycerin manometer), which introduces an error of ±0.51 m. However, the deviations are relatively small. The calculation of the mean absolute percentage error, MAPE, produces a value of 0.49%. This vale is less than 1 … 2%, which indicates that the proposed equations have excellent precision.
Likewise, in the scatter graph presented in Figure 7, correspondence is observed between the calculated and measured hydraulic head values.
CONCLUSIONS
⌅-
The development of mathematical expressions is presented to calculate the head loss and the pressure load distribution in central pivots configured for the irrigation of citrus plantations.
-
The R2 statistic indicates that the model as fitted explains 96.1% of the variability in F. The correlation coefficient equals 0.98, indicating a relatively strong relationship.
-
In the proposed model, it is observed that when N ⟶ ∞, F = 0.548. This is precisely the value of F for the velocity exponent equal to 1.852
-
The calculation of the mean absolute percentage error, MAPE, produces a value of 0.49%. This vale is less than 1 … 2%, which indicates that the proposed equations have excellent precision